Теоретическая грамматика

Марьина Виктория Владимировна

 Главная цель курса теоретической грамматики заключается в изучении основных грамматических теорий по всем основополагающим проблемам грамматики английского языка, актуальных исследований последних лет для формирования необходимой лингвистической эрудиции будущих бакалавров и специалистов. 

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OVERVIEW of Grammar through history: stages and main approaches

The fact that grammar is the backbone of language is an axiom which needn’t be discussed. The first recorded researches of grammar are related to ancient times; the best known to us belong to Indian, Greek and Latin philosophers.

In the course of history a variety of approaches which differ in both their theoretical bases and methods applied in the analysis have been elaborated. The most comprehensive and influential among them today are:

  • taxonomic: traditional scientific and structural descriptive,  which set as their goal the creation of comprehensive classifications of language units (thus the name ‘taxonomic’);
  • transformational-generative, that is interested in discovering formal mechanisms of sentence production;
  • functional, aiming at describing objectively the state of things in linguistic reality and offering general and particular reasons for possible behavior of language units;
  • cognitive, that researches into the effects of mental activity as reflected by language.

Of grammatical description in general we may say that it has always tried to remain fundamental, conservative, stable, but at the same time, it has inevitably reacted to the evolution of science, especially in the 20th and 21st centuries. On the whole, modern grammar and grammatical description may be essentially portrayed as expansive, anthropocentric, functional, and explanatory. It is also characterized by the distinct shift from morphology to syntax, manifesting the rise of interest to the human communicative activity.

Traditional scientific is the oldest and, consequently, the most elaborated type of grammatical description. As it is deeply rooted to ancient traditions, it often uses the notions and terms of Ancient grammar (such as nouns, verbs, subjects, predicates etc.), distinguished and defined grammatical units on a similar basis comprising meaning, function in the sentence and typical morphemes. Sentence members, types of sentences and clauses were singled out primarily on a semantic basis. Due to such supremacy of meaning definitions are often vague, ambiguous and allow several interpretations, which gives firm ground for criticism.

Structural descriptive (distributional) approach set as its task a description of the finite number of language units which were believed to constitute the structure of language. The analysis carried out on numerous recorded samples of native speakers’ oral speech (language corpus) consisted in classifying and labelling various elements at several levels: phonological, morphological and syntactic. The principle of classification was to detect the typical co-occurrence of words / word-forms in certain syntactical positions However, the structural analysis specifically 1) ignored the lexical meaning of language units and the ideas conveyed by them, 2) showed principal concern for the formal connections existing between the neighbouring language units of different lengths, 3) made no distinction between units of morphemic and syntactical nature.

Transformational-generative grammar was originally meant as adversary to the structural trend. TGG presents the sentence as a structural pattern, a rule, according to which utterances, understood and recognized as “grammatically correct” by native speakers, can be produced. (The ability to produce an infinite number of grammatically correct sentences was termed “language competence”).

Functional grammar studies the use of grammatical phenomena in situations of actual communication, treating them as means of expressing the speaker’s communicative intention. Functional grammar is not a unified theory but rather a collection of ones, united by the common fundamental principles. The most important among them are the following:

  1. languages are viewed as tools of communication as the main language function is communicative;
  2. language units are used in speech for a certain purpose, and language on the whole is an activity which is motivated by and subdued to the purpose it is instantly serving;
  3. all extra-linguistic factors are significant;
  4. the main task of a functional analysis is to discover the function of a language unit and its realization in speech, thus, a specific relationship of form and function is recognized.

Some twenty years ago a cognitive, to be more exact, a cognitive-communicative approach was born as a variety of functionalism.

In the broad sense, the name ‘cognitive grammar’ is synonymous to ‘cognitive linguistics’ and refers to a number of theories and descriptions where language is viewed as a cognitive semiotic mechanism, or instrument, i.e. as a system of signs functioning to represent (to code) and transform information of various types in order to store and make use of this information. In the narrow sense, cognitive grammar is a particular grammatical description that opposes generative grammar. It presents an attempt to produce a description of how syntax and lexicon intertwine and work as a unity.

By way of clarifying the attitude to the relations between these directions it may be stated right here that functionalism focuses on the communicative factors influencing the structure of language, whereas cognitivism researches into the effects of mental activity as reflected by language.



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Студентки 2 курса

факультета ГПН

Meanings of the genitive case in nouns

 The category of case of nouns is the system of opposemes showing the relations of the noun to other words in speech. Case relations reflect the relations of the substances the nouns name to other substances, actions, states in the world of reality (Chaimovich, p. 60).

These relations can vary considerably, and  L.S. Barkhudarov tells us about 6 main meanings  which  the morpheme of the Genitive Case can imply:

1) Possession (the so called Possessive Genitive):

John's car, Bill's beard, the old man's family. All these constructions can lead us to the sentences with the verb "to have" as a predicate:

John has a car. Bill has a beard, etc. The verb gives us this meaning of belonging or possession.

2) Subjective relations (the so called Subjective Genitive):

Mary's happiness,  the girl's beauty, my uncle's death.  These  constructions can lead us to the sentences where the first part of the construction  is a subject and the second one corresponds to the predicative. Mary is happy. The girl is beautiful, etc.

3) Objective relations (Objective Genitive):

John's surprise, Smith's trial. These constructions can lead us to sentences where the first part of it is an object: Somebody surprised John. Somebody tried Smith.

4) Measure (so called Adverbial Genitive):

Two hours' work, a month's leave. The first part of such construction is a  temporal noun, and the whole can be transformed into the sentence with this temporal noun as an adverbial modifier: John worked for two hours. Mary was on leave for a month.

5) Equation (so called Equational Genitive):

A mile's distance, an arm's length. The first part of such construction is a noun denoting distance and measure, and the whole can be transformed into the sentence where the second part of it is a subject and the first one is part of a predicative, and meaning of the sentence is equation between notions behind the subject and the predicative. The distance is a mile. The length is an arm.

6) Kind or species (so called Genitive of Destination)

children's books, ladies' garments, men's rooms. These constructions can be transformed into sentences where the second part of it is a subject and the first one is part of the predicate with the preposition "for".

There is a number of constructions which does not fit into any of the groups mentioned above, and L.S. Barkhudarov quite gracefully places these incongruities into a vast group of "miscellaneous", for example:

My aunt's letter, Nick's school, yesterday's paper, etc.

Литература:

1. Л.С. Бархударов. Очерки по морфологии современного английского языка. М., 1975

2. Б.С. Хаймович, Б.И. Роговская. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка. М., 1987



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Keda Olga, 4-46

Predicativity. Means of expressing predicativity

Predicativity is the main differential feature of a sentence. It refers the utterance to reality.

When we compare the word group the doctor's arrival to the sentence The doctor arrived we may see that the former  specify neither the time of the action nor the manner in which it is regarded by the speaker (whether the action is desirable, actual or past), while the latter show us that the action took place in the past.   When we have the time reference the utterance becomes complete, real and important. So predicativity helps us to "evolve the utterance, to relate it to reality, to give it completeness and to make up a sentence".[1]

Predicativity may be expressed by:

1) Intonation. Intonation helps us to differentiate a sentence from a word group (even if these words are related in accordance with grammar rules of the language, they are only would-be sentences without intonation).

2) Finite Form of the verb.

- This form shows whether the action of the verb is real or unreal, desirable or necessary:

Were it only true! It is true.

-  Finite form shows the time of the action (past, present or future):

He lives here. He lived here. He will live here.

- Finite form of the verb points out how the utterance is related to the speakers involved: 1st person involves the speaker himself, 2d person tells us that the utterance is addressed to the interlocutor, 3d person shows that the utterance refers to none of the speakers involved.

3) Sometimes predicativity may be expressed by the absence  in the sentence of the verb itself.

Why not go there? (no verb in the finite form)

No smoking! English spoken here. Some water!

Литература:

1. Смирницкий А.И. Синтаксис английского языка. М., Издательство литературы на иностранных языках, 1957, с. 48-54, 100-111.

2. Б.С. Хаймович, Б.И. Роговская. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка. М. "Высшая школа", 1987, с.220-233


[1] Смирницкий, с.102



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АРТИКЛЬ В КОНТЕКСТЕ ТЕОРИИ РЕФЕРЕНЦИИ.

РЕФЕРЕНЦИЯ И НОМИНАЦИЯ

По справедливому замечанию крупного отечественного теоретика В.Г. Гака, НОМИНАЦИЯ и РЕФЕРЕНЦИЯ имеют дело с одним и тем же явлением - отношением имени к обозначаемому объекту, и различие между этими понятиями, по-видимому, заключено в направлении анализа. ТЕОРИЯ РЕФЕРЕНЦИИ стремится выяснить, на что указывает данное имя, каково его значение (как устроено имя в языковом отношении). Отсюда и основные проблемы этой теории: идентичность (разнозначность) имен, проблема предметности референта, его существования. Теория номинации рассматривает, как объект получает свое название. Если номинация ориентирована на “обозначение всего отражаемого и обозначаемого человеческим сознанием, всего сущего и мыслимого - предметов, лиц, действий, качеств, отношений и событий", на нахождение “прямых языковых коррелятов понятий и мышления”, то референция имеет дело, в частности, с “механизмами, позволяющими связывать речевые сообщения и их компоненты с внеязыковыми объектами, ситуациями, событиями, фактами, положениями вещей в реальном мире». В плане референциональных способностей языковых средств референция трактуется либо широко, либо узко. Некоторые лингвисты применяют термин “референция” только к высказываниям о конкретных индивидуализированных объектах, что суживает ее понимание. В последнем случае имя или именная группа референтны, "если они соответствуют некоторому объекту или группе объектов, выбранных из данного класса объектов и представленных в сознании говорящих”; они нереферентны, “если не соотносятся с каким-либо индивидуализированным объектом, но с классом в целом, либо с признаками этих объектов”. При широком понимании референции референтными считаются все виды отношений языковых знаков и выражений к действительности, иными словами, референцию возможно производить к объекту, лицу, событию, процессу, месту или определенному признаку.

В английском языке принято различать два типа референции в составе именных групп: определенную и неопределенную.

Средствами референции признаются местоименные и артиклеобразные элементы в составе именной группы (а также категории вида, времени, наклонения в составе глагольной группы). Артиклеобразные и местоименные выражения входят в референциональный аспект именного выражения (группы, состоящей из существительного, артикля и описывающих существительное выражений), реализуемый семантической категорией качественной детерминации (определенности/неопределенности). Поскольку одним из маркеров определенной и неопределенной референции является артикль, представляется целесообразным кратко рассмотреть некоторые теории артикля, соотносимые с теорией референции.

В рамках теории актуализации артикль рассматривается как актуализатор существительного, благодаря которому виртуальное понятие переводится в актуальное в речи: основной семантической функцией (ролью) артикля является актуализация понятия, иными словами, артикль соотносит понятие с действительностью (С.Д. Кацнельсон). Референция, как уже отмечалось, есть соотношение актуализованного, включенного в речь имени или именной группы к объектам внеязыковой действительности, актуализатором же имени является артикль. В этом смысле, теории актуализации и референции демонстрируют сходство в плане рассмотрения артикля как средства соотнесения понятия с действительностью.

Рассматривая функционирование артикля с позиции теории определенности/неопределенности, можно сделать вывод о том, что в основных чертах эта теория также сходится с теорией референции. Так, выделяемая в лингвистике категория определенности/неопределенности рассматривается как двучленная категория, непосредственно связанная с теорией артикля. Роль ее сводится к необходимости указания на степень знания о предмете, то есть определенности и неопределенности данного предмета. В одном случае, называя предмет, говорящий имеет в виду один из многих предметов (какой-либо неопределенный предмет), а в другом случае - уточненный, единственно возможный в данной ситуации, индивидуализированный. При этом функция определенного артикля в представлении предмета как “индивидуализированного” прямо соотносится с той ролью, которая приписывается определенному артиклю теорией референции - индивидуализацией объекта. К тому же, такое понятие, как пресуппозиция говорящих (разделяемое ими знание, необходимое для построения и понимания высказывания), одинаково характерно и для теории референции и для теории определенности/неопределенности.

В рамках логической теории подчеркивается роль артикля в отражении объема и содержания понятия. Содержание понятия указывает на признаки, на основе которых оно сформировано, объем - на количество элементов, охватываемых понятием. Так, определенный артикль связан с объемом понятия, выражая тотальность или единичность, например: The cat is an animal / I see the cat of my neighbours (Гак, 1986). Теория референции соприкасается с логической теорией в том плане, что определенная референция может быть как тотальной, так и единичной, что в свою очередь связано с двумя функциями определенного артикля - с функцией генерализации и с функцией индивидуализации.

Важным является также вопрос О СУЩНОСТИ АРТИКЛЯ И ЕГО МЕСТЕ В СТРУКТУРЕ ЯЗЫКА. В англистике нет единой точки зрения по данной проблеме. Одни исследователи считают артикль частью речи и рассматривают его как отдельное слово, другие полагают, что артикль является морфемой. Среди тех, кто считает артикль отдельным словом, мнения также расходятся. Одна группа ученых относит артикль к разряду местоимений (А. И. Смирницкий, О. Есперсен, А. Соммерштейн), другая - к разряду прилагательных (Р. Пенс, Дж. Несфильд). Распространено представление об артикле как о детерминативе или определителе существительного, который составляет с ним аналитическое образование и занимает промежуточное положение между свободным синтаксическим соединением слов и соединением грамматического аффикса со значимой основой (М.Я. Блох). Большинство языковедов считает артикль служебной частью речи.

Говоря о значении артикля, следует подчеркнуть, что этот вопрос также вызывает противоречивые суждения. В частности, А. Гардинер (1951) считает, что артикль не имеет никакого значения. Большинство же авторов признает наличие значения у английского артикля. Так, Е. А. Рейман (1988) полагает, что как определенный, так и неопределенный артикль обладает собственным, самостоятельным значением, при этом оба артикля имеют общее для них частеречное значение. По отношению к имени существительному артикли выполняют дифференцирующую функцию, которая заключается в том, что наличие или отсутствие артикля при существительном является показателем уровня обобщения в семантике существительного. Частеречное значение английского артикля определяется как значение “идентификации”. Обобщенная идентификация характеризует значение неопределенного артикля, индивидуализирующая идентификация является значением определенного артикля.

ВОЗМОЖНОСТИ СОВРЕМЕННЫХ МЕЖДИСЦИПЛИНАРНЫХ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЙ: ФУНКЦИОНАЛЬНАЯ ГРАММАТИКА И СТИЛИСТИКА

В широкой лингвистической парадигме, получившей название функционализма и рассматривающей языковой знак как сущность, в которой объективировано единство мышления и коммуникации, выделяются два основных направления - коммуникативно-прагматическое и когнитивное, изучающие характер систематизации, категоризации и концептуализации запечатленного в языке человеческого опыта (Жаботинская,1992). Если ПРАГМАТИКА рассматривает речевые акты и условия их реализации в процессе коммуникации (то есть отвечает на вопрос “как?”), то КОГНИТИВНАЯ ЛИНГВИСТИКА анализирует содержание, облекаемое в форму речевых актов (то есть отвечает на вопрос “что?”).

Изучение экспрессивно-коммуникативной функции языка является предметом идейных совпадений лингвопрагматики и стилистики. Аспект прагматического в стилистической интерпретации имеет отношение к использованию стилистически маркированных языковых средств для достижения коммуникативных целей, в частности, к изучению особых языковых построений (стилистических приемов) как средств повышения воздейственности речи. “Можно без преувеличения сказать, что все то, что при анализе текста квалифицируется как стилистически отмеченное, в равной степени относится и к прагматике языкового употребления” (Лузина, 1991).

Изучение стилистически маркированных языковых средств является частью более широкой проблематики языкового варьирования. Признается, что стилистически значимое языковое варьирование предполагает наличие синонимии в языке, в том числе, синонимии грамматической. Если принять, что “стиль - это выбор”, то выбор языкового средства (того или иного члена синонимичного ряда) может производиться с учетом экспрессивной коннотации, которая в речи становится основой различных стилистических приемов. Стилистический прием всегда является обнаружением потенциальных выразительных возможностей определенных языковых средств.

Экспрессивные возможности синтаксических конструкций отмечались многими лингвистами. В. В. Виноградов в круг необходимых исследований по стилистическому синтаксису включал “проблему экспрессивных - выразительных, изобразительных - оттенков, присущих той или иной синтаксической конструкции или тем или иным комбинациям синтаксических конструкций” (Виноградов,1955).

Поскольку экспрессивная функция языка - это способность выражать эмоциональное состояние говорящего, его субъективное отношение к обозначаемым предметам и явлениям, некоторые атрибутивные структуры, в силу особенностей своей грамматической семантики, могут приобретать в речи некоторую эмоциональную окрашенность. Так, атрибутивная структура, допускающая употребление родительного падежа с названием стран и народов (в отличие, скажем, от предложного сочетания) рассматривается стилистами как “персонификация” (Арнольд,1981), которая, даже будучи сильно стертой, сохраняет эмоциональную окрашенность, придает высказыванию некоторую приподнятость стиля. Сравните: 

Out of the half darkness, beyond the little strip of Park Land at the water’s edge, the huge empty houses of Chicago’s fashionable folk made a greyish-blue blot against the sky. (Sh.A., 151)

He was also not sure if “A Tale of Two Cities”, revived after many years, was going to appeal to the citizens of Worcester. (B.C., 10)

Экспрессивность здесь создается за счет кажущейся несовместимости грамматической семантики “принадлежности” и лексико-грамматического характера (неодушевленности) существительного в родительном падеже. В другом случае для достижения большей экспрессивности из двух номинативных синонимов - атрибутивных структур с прилагательным/причастием и предложным сочетанием выбирается тот, который выражает признак не непосредственно, а через отношения между предметами, то есть с использованием однокоренного существительного, образованного путем деривации. Сравните:

She must always have been a cold self-possessed woman. (S.M.2,157)

She was a woman of great self-possession. (S.M.2,156)

При этом предлог ”of”, в отличие от других предлогов, не просто фиксирует какие-то конкретные отношения, но и представляет эти отношения как характерный признак предмета, как его квалификацию. Сравните также: 

It seemed to give her a remarkably respectable, conventional air. (H.E.B.1,78)

The women were a strange contrast as they stood there in the flower-filled room with its air of luxurious impersonalness which is so characteristic of any hotel room whenever one may find it. (B.C.,40)

(В последнем примере идея типичности, характерности признака дублируется контекстом). Представляя признак объекта как типичный, характерный, автор высказывания выражает свое субъективное отношение к обозначаемому.

В работах по экспрессивному синтаксису отмечается, что определенную экспрессивную коннотацию, экспрессивный заряд несет длина атрибутивной синтаксической структуры, наличие пре- и постпозитивных атрибутов, сочетание пре- и постпозитивных атрибутов при одном определяемом, например: This red, blue-eyed, light-lashed, tow-haired face stuck as firmly in his memory as the girl’s own face. (J.G.,67)

Предложные определения в постпозиции, но без обособления, могут участвовать в стилистическом приеме антитезы, который строится на параллелизме синтаксических конструкций. Например: The witch with the mummy face began to talk to him... The witch with the puffy face seemed to be listening from her stool, motionless... (J.Cn., 22)

Усиление экспрессивности может идти за счет ритмической организации двух или более обособленных определений, например: Ashurst, red and rigid, looked across the table at a red and rigid Stella. (J.G., 92)

(В данном примере экспрессивность достигается также синтаксическим противопоставлением обособленных постпозитивных и препозитивных определений, тождественных лексически).

Считается, что постановка одного или нескольких прилагательных после определяемого слова придает высказыванию несколько архаизированный, приподнятый характер, организует его ритмически, может акцентироваться наречиями или союзами и даже получает оттенок предикативности, рапример: At the foot of a crumbling fifty-foot cliff... was a beautiful little palm-studded beach for swimming..., complete with even a dancehall-bar and little restaurant, now closed and silent and sad. (J.J., 121)

Обособление на письме может выделяться как запятыми, так и тире - для создания эффекта эмфазы. Например: Her talk - quick, rather hard and shy, yet friendly - seemed to flourish on his silences... (J.G., 92)

Здесь экспрессивность высказывания достигается как графически, так и за счет увеличения числа обособленных определений (свыше трех). Усиление экспрессивности при обособлении может производиться путем увеличения предикативности структуры. При этом из синонимического ряда выбирается тот синоним, в котором предикативность более эксплицирована, например, структура с придаточным предложением. Сравните:

His eyes, pale blue and rather large, were weary. (S.M.2,167)

Her hear, which was nearly black, hang untidy... (B.C., 9)

Крайняя степень обособленности - парцелляция - также выполняет различные стилистические функции в тексте, в частности, функцию эмфазы. Парцелляция и обособление считаются однородными явлениями и разграничиваются лишь с помощью графического критерия. Парцеллят на письме отделяется финальными знаками, а обособление - запятой, тире, например: Quite a new sensation; terribly delightful, bringing a sense of completed manhood. (J.G., 75)

Атрибутивные структуры могут выполнять еще один вид обособления - парентетические внесения, экспрессивная функция которых заключается в том, чтобы “характеризовать сообщаемое с позиции говорящего к сообщаемому” (Русская грамматика, 1980). Сравните, например, как участвуют в парентезах, относящихся к категории отсылки, грамматически синонимичные выражения:

What Alstons had died were the things they came to, after trees - the recent ones, overflowed from the family graves and laid out on this side of Delight Baptist Church,..., with the people around them that never had family graves to begin with - Rosacoke’s Papa (who was her grandfather and who by the time he died had completely forgotten Miss Pauline his wife...) (R.P., 182)

And on the four or five occasions during the year when Ellen would bring the children to spend the day at her father’s, the aunt (that strong vindictive consistent woman who seems to have been twice the man that Mr Coldfield was... ) (W.F., 72)

Особая роль в реализации коннотации экспрессивности принадлежит повтору, то есть перечислению в речи (тексте) синтаксически однотипных структур. Перечисление синонимичных однотипных структур не является избыточностью в языке, но создает напряжение в повествовании, передает состояние взволнованности говорящего, привлекая тем самым внимание слушающего к наиболее важному в данном высказывании и усиливая воздействующую функцию всего сообщения. Эта стилистическая фигура (повтор и нарастание) часто реализуется употреблением одного и того же члена синонимического ряда, например: We passed an old man musing among laurels /.../ and came through a broad shaded colonnade to a spacious cool palace, full of pleasant fountains, full of beautiful things, full of the quality and promise of heart’s desire. (H.W.,39)

No: just the face of a man who contrived somehow to swagger even on a horse - a man who so far as anyone /.../ knew either had no past at all or did not dare reveal it - a man who rode into town out of nowhere with a horse and two pistols and a herd of wild beasts /.../ - a man who fled here and hid, concealed himself behind respectability,... (W.F.,38-39)

Наконец, “игра синонимов”, то есть употребление в одном и том же контексте разных членов одного ряда ФСС, может использоваться при создании рекурсивных приемов с целью образного представления объекта и ситуации. Рекурсия в лингвистике и в искусстве вообще применяется для расширения протяженности и глубины действия, пространства, времени и любых других параметров бытия. В арсенале лингвистической рекурсии имеется множество выразительных схем. Среди них - замыкающие начало и конец повествования повторы слов или структур, рекурсивные вызовы одной схемы развития сюжета или описания с разным наполнением параметров. В плане выражения - это, в частности, параллелизм, стилистический повтор с уточняющими комментариями, в которых используются разного рода атрибутивные конструкции.

Например: The girl wore a light blouse of silk, a short skirt of black velvet and a pair of very thin silk stockings that showed the flesh of instep and shin so plainly that he could see they were reddened by the warmth of the fire. She had on a pair of dainty cloth shoes with high heels, but what was wonderful about her was the heap of rich black hair piled at the black of her head and shadowing the dusky neck. (A.E.C., 193)

Именные группы “a blouse of silk” и “silk stockings” - члены синонимического ряда с общей семантической функцией “отношение объекта и его свойства (материал)”, a “stockings that showed” и “hair... shadowing “ - синонимы с общей семантической функцией ”субъектно-предикатные отношения”.

Еще более показательным в плане рекурсии является отрывок из романа У.Фолкнера “Авессалом, Авессалом!”[1] В нем основная сюжетная линия постоянно обогащается все новыми измерениями, развиваясь вглубь, а характер повествовательной речи поражает тем, что фразы текут медленно и тяжело, захватывая в себя массу сведений и растягиваясь порой в длиннейшие периоды.

He probably did not even look at her twice as weighed against his own family and children - ...as against Ellen who, though small-boned also, was what is known as full-bodied /.../ and against Judith already taller than Ellen, and Henry...; this face which rarely spoke during the meal, with eyes like (as you might put it) pieces of coal pressed into soft dough and prim hair of that peculiar mouse-like shade of hair on which the sun does not often shine, against Judith’s and Henry’s out-of-door faces... - this small body of Miss Rosa’s with its air of curious and paradoxical awkwardness like a costume borrowed at the last moment and of necessity for a masquerade which she did not want to attend: that aura of a creature cloistered now by deliberate choice and still in the throes of enforced apprenticeship to, rather than voluntary or even acquiescent participation in, breathing - this bound maidservant to flesh and blood waiting even now to escape it by writing a schoolgirl’s poetry about the also-dead. The face, the smallest face in the company, watching him across the table with still and curious and profound intensity... (W.F.,80)

В этом отрывке используются синонимы, входящие в одни и те же синонимические ряды. Сравните:

Выражение отношения типизации

A         (1)         eyes like pieces of coal

                awkwardness like a costume

        (2)        mouse-like shade

B         (1)        that aura of a creature

        (2)        a schoolgirl’s poetry

Выражение субъектно-предикатных отношений

(1)                the face which spoke

(2)                this maidservant waiting

Выражение отношения объекта и его признака

(1)                air of awkwardness

(2)                still and curious and profound intensity

Стилистическим фактором может регулироваться и выбор между референциональными синонимами. В акте коммуникации, который протекает в идеально-отраженной области интенциональных идей, выступающих в форме коммуникативных представлений, в частности, представлений субъекта об объекте и его отношениях с ним (Атаян, 1981), разные субъекты в конкретной речевой ситуации могут оценивать свои отношения с объектами одинаково и по-разному. В художественном тексте реальный субъект - это персонаж литературного произведения, потенциальный субъект - его автор.

Автор может комментировать события как с позиции реального субъекта - персонажа, так и со своей собственной. Если потенциальный субъект “отстраняется” от объекта и всех происходящих событий, связанных с персонажем, происходит эффект “отчуждения” автора. Автор может “сближаться” с персонажем в оценке объекта. “Сближение” зон бытия потенциального и реального субъекта может проводиться автором текста для создания эффекта “интимизации”. Сравните:

...all men and mashines were carefully watched by other counterpart men and mashines /.../ The moment that the door swung open..., each of the men ran for the predesignated station wagon. (B&W,68)

His hand gripped with pitiable eagerness... as though the nerves inside them had been forced taut for so long that now they had burst beyond their strained tegument; /.../ these nerves and muscles in his two legs and two armes seemed to work independantly. (W.S.,305)

His hands encircled Art’s face, the finger-tips pointing toward the scene his eyes had been driven from. My eyes dwelt, fascinated upon those finger-tips. (S.Ch.,89)

В примере с these автор текста, описывая переживания и усилия своего героя, выбирает местоимение и тем самым сближает свою зону бытия и зону бытия своего персонажа. Он представляет событие как происходящее у него на глазах, добиваясь сопереживания читателя. В примере с those автор произведения и текста - одно и то же лицо, он совмещен со своим персонажем и оценивает события с его позиции. Для достижения эффекта “отчуждения” автор как бы отстраняется от объекта речи, не в силах осознать ужас происходящего (в рассказе описывается несчастный случай в шахте). Избрав определенный артикль единственно в целях индивидуализации референта, автор никак не соотносит объект со своей зоной бытия, не обнаруживает своего личного отношения к объекту.

Различия между синонимами, соотносящими языковое выражение и его внеязыковой референт, могут быть использованы в целях организации художественного текста, создания обусловленной замыслом автора архитектоники литературного произведения. В тех случаях, когда референтная линия текста выстраивается автором в соответствии с его собственной творческой задачей и игра «референциональных синонимов» приобретает характер изобразительного средства, стилистика смыкается с теорией текста, образуя широкую пограничную область. Так, в романе У.Фолкнера “Авессалом, Авессалом!”, где умышленно нарушены традиционные правила построения романного времени и действие разворачивается не в хронологической последовательности, “но словно медленно кружится в огромном резервуаре истории, не знающей разделения на вчера, сегодня, завтра” (Анастасьев, 1982), употребление всех трех функциональных синонимов - the, this, that - позволяет автору по своему усмотрению менять угол зрения на описываемые события. Сами события романа совершаются почти в столетнем промежутке, между годами, когда главный герой романа Сатпен бежал из дома, отправляясь в долгое жизненное плавание, и годом, когда другой персонаж романа, Квентин, принялся распутывать таинственные и страшные истории древних лет. Сравните: 

That was what they saw, though it was years before the town learned that that was all which he possessed at the time - the strong spent horse and the clothes on his back and a small saddlebag... (W.F., 53)

... it was General Compson who first realized that at this time Satpen lacked not only the money to spend for drink and convivality, but the time and inclination as well; that he was at this time completely the slave of his secret and furious impatience, his conviction gained from whatever that recent experience had been - that fever , mental or physical - of a need for haste, which was to drive him for the next five years - as General Compson computed it. (W.F., 53-54)

В примере с артиклем автор текста (У. Фолкнер), описывая первое появление Сатпена в городе, только устанавливает отношение индивидуализирующей референции между этой ситуацией и именем “the time”, не соотнося объект речи”time” со своей временной сферой, поскольку это для него нерелевантно. В следующем примере один из персонажей романа, генерал Компсон, представляет описываемое событие то как входящее в его временную сферу (“this time”), то как выходящее за его пределы в прошлое (“that experience”) и в будущее (“that fever”), сопровождая процесс индивидуализация референта хронологизацией событий под своим собственным углом зрения.

В романе “Авессалом, Авессалом!” мир представлен в резко субъективном преломлении - через восприятие его героев, авторское присутствие в тексте порой вовсе неощутимо. И, тем не менее, он проявляет себя - в “чужом” слове, сближая себя со своими персонажами. Автором романа используется сложнейшая литературная техника - постоянная смена углов зрения, в которой критики были склонны усматривать усилия чисто экспериментального свойства. События романа предстают перед читателем, главным образом, в отраженном восприятии персонажей, в их “личностном” осмыслении. Авторская же оценка происходящего осуществляется с точки зрения общины, человеческого сообщества, формируя образ коллективного рассказчика. Поэтому монологи отдельных лиц сменяются объективной повествовательной речью, которая противостоит их субъективной оценке. Сравните два отрывка из романа, которые отличаются композиционной симметричностью и одинаковой или сходной структурной организацией (повтор и параллелизм). Различаются они выбором синонимов: this для характеристики объекта как “представляющего важность, значительность” для говорящего, как находящегося в фокусе его интереса, и the - для нейтральной, объективной авторской оценки.

You see? there they are: this girl, this young countrybred girl who sees a man for an average of one hour a day for twelve days during his life /.../, yet is bent on marrying him to the extent of forcing her brother to the last resort of homicide, even if not murder, to prevent it...; this father who had seen that man once, yet had reason to make a six hundred mile journey to investigate him...; this brother in whose eyes that sister’s and daughter’s havoc and happiness, granted that curious and unusual relationship which existed between them, should have been more jealous and precious than to the father even...; and this lover who apparently without volition or desire became involved in an engagement..., who took his dismissal in the same passive and sardonic spirit... (W.F.,109)

He knew what would be there - the woman whom he had seen once and seen through, the girl whom he had seen through without even having to see once, the man whom he had seen daily, watched out of his fearful intensity of need and had never penetrated - the mother who had taken Henry aside before they had been six hours in the house on that Christmas visit and informed him of the engagement almost before the fiance had time to associate the daughter’s name with the daughter’s face... (W.F.,305)

Перечисленные выше явления отнюдь не исчерпывают всех потенциальных возможностей грамматических синонимов. Данный фрагмент – лишь одна из иллюстраций к утверждению, что выбор между синонимами, наряду с задачами адекватного представления объекта действительности, может быть продиктован и изобразительными целями, то есть задачами выражения отношения автора высказывания к объекту речи и воздействия на адресат.

По материалам монографии Т.С. Сорокиной

«Функциональная грамматическая синонимия в английском языке» (1995)


[1] Отрывок дается в сокращении.



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Студентки 2 курса

факультета ГПН

группы 4-46

Кеда О.В.

The category of correlation.

Various interpretations of perfect forms

The category of correlation (Phase) is constituted by the opposition of Perfect and non-Perfect forms. The marked member of the opposition is Perfect, which is built up by the auxiliary have in combination with the past participle of the notional verb.

The position of the perfect forms in the system of the English verb has long been discussed and is still controversial. There are several views on the essence of the perfect forms:

1) so called "tense view" (O.Jespersen, H. Sweet, G. Curme, N.F. Irtenyeva): the category of perfect is a peculiar tense category. According to this view, the difference between the perfect and non-perfect forms is that the former denotes a "secondary temporal characteristic of the action" (Блох, с. 161). It shows that this action precedes some other action in the present, past or future.

However, if the perfect were a tense category, the present perfect would be a union of two different tenses (the present and the perfect), as the past perfect would be a union of two different tenses (the past and the perfect), so as the future perfect,  and that is impossible.

2) so called "aspect view" (M. Deutschbein, E.A. Sonnenschein, G.N. Vorontsova) : the category of perfect is a peculiar aspect category. This view underlines the idea of the successive connection of two events expressed by the perfect, its resultative semantics.

However, the aspective view has its pitfalls as well. For example, if we compare such forms as is writing - has been writing, was writing - had been writing, we'll see that all these forms belong to the continuous aspect, but they cannot be said to differ from each other on the aspect line. So perfect is not an aspect.

3) so called "time correlation view" ( A.I. Smirnitsky, L.S. Barkhudarov, B. A. Ilyish, M.Y. Blokh): the perfect form is a specific category, different from both categories of tense and aspect. Its main meanings are:  a) precedence (an action expressed by a perfect form precedes some moment in time); b) correlation (an action expressed by a perfect form is related to other action or moment in time). In both cases the lexical meaning of the verb, the tense category of the form, the syntactical context, and the extralinguistic factor (the situation in which the perfect form is used) influence the use and shades of meaning of the perfect forms.

Literature:

1. Бархударов, Л.С. Очерки по морфологии современного английского языка. М., "Высшая школа", 1975

2. Блох, М.Я. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка. М., "Высшая школа", 2000

3. Ильиш, Б.А. Строй современного английского языка. Л., "Просвещение", 1971


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TYPES OF THE PREDICATE

The Predicate is one of the two main parts of the sentence.  The Predicate with the Subject makes up the predicative bond. It predicates features and characteristics of the Subject and is in concord with it.  The classification of Predicates can be based on:  1) Structural parameters: simple vs. compound and 2) Morphological parameters: verbal vs. nominal:
1. SIMPLE VERBAL PREDICATE – SVP 

This is a verb phrase in a simple or compound tense form, in active or passive voice. e.g.: Somebody broke the door. The door had been broken.
The 
phraseological P is the subtype of the SVP. It is made up of two constituents functioning in a phrase which semantically equals one lexical unit. There are two kinds of phraseological SVP:
1)
Finite verb with vague meaning + verb-like noun (e.g.: to have a look, to have a walk, to give a push, to give a start, to take a walk, to take a look, to take a shower, to make a move.)
2)
Vague verb + abstract noun without article + preposition (usually of: to get rid of, to get hold of, to take care of, to make fun of, to make use of, to lose sight of, to catch sight of)

2. SIMPLE NOMINAL PREDICATE – SNP 

This type does not contain verbal form; it is just a noun or an adjective. There are two types, according to the word order: 1) S – P type – usually in exclamations of absurdity (e.g.: He, a gentleman! She, a beauty! Me, stupid!) N.B. These are not elliptical sentences with a dropped link verb because if such a “missing” verb is inserted the meaning would change radically, cf. He, a gentleman! – He is a gentleman. 2) P – S type – “thoughtful” remarks (e.g.: Nice thing, beer! Splendid game, cricket!)

3. COMPOUND VERBAL PREDICATE – CVP 

In this case the P contains two parts based on two different lexemes, two lexical units, one of which is notional (bears the semantic contents) and the other one is a semi-auxiliary which has either modal or assertive meaning. There are two subtypes of CVP: 1) The modal CVP : Modal verb + infinitive (e.g.: can go, may arrive, must come); Verb with modal meaning + ing form (e.g.: want to go, intend to find, wish, long, yearn, expect, desire);   Be/have + infinitive (e.g.: He has to come. He is to arrive tomorrow.); Be/going + infinitive (e.g.: He is going to leave. Here belong phrases like: had better, had best, would rather: I would rather stay but I had better go.)  2) The aspective SVP: Here the semi-auxiliary has aspective meaning of beginning, duration, continuation, ending, stopping etc. Such verbs are: to begin, to continue, to stop, to cease, to keep. Here belong the phrases WOULD + inf. and USED TO + inf. which express habitual actions in the past.
4. THE COMPOUND NOMINAL PREDICATE – CNP – S – (link-V – Cs)

CNP consist of link-V + Predicative (subject complements), where link-V is a “bridge” (link between the S and its features, expressed by the Cs). Thus the Cs bears the notional content of the CNP and the true link-V is just a connection and is normally void of lexical meaning. The most typical link-V are: be, become. In some cases link-Vs may have partially retained some lexical meaning while being at the same time a link-V – such cases are known as “double predicates”:   She married young = she married + she was young.  

5. In addition to the four types of Predicates outlined above, also are MIXED TYPES:

1) Modal nominal P: It must be very funny. You needn’t be afraid.
2)
Aspective compound nominal P: He continued to be afraid.

3) Modal compound aspective P: He must stop doing nothing.

List of books:  

Б.А.Ильиш «Строй современного английского языка».-Л., 1971.-265с.

В.Л. Каушанская «A grammar of the English language».-Л., 1963.-322с.

http://englishgoeseasy.blogspot.ru/2012/11/4-predicate.html#more



Предварительный просмотр:

PARTS OF SPEECH: GENERAL ISSUES

KEY TERMS AND NOTIONS

BASIC THEORETICAL POINTS

DEBATABLE ISSUES

REFERENCES

Parts of speech

Partes orationis

Notional / function (functional, structural) parts of speech

Form words

1. Classification of words as a task of morphology.

Parts of speech: definition; integrative relations and diversities in the system.

2. Functional classification of words into parts of speech: notional and function words. Main characteristics of the groups.

3. Principles of classification of words into parts of speech. Origin of modern classification.

1) semantic

2) formal

3) formal-and-semantic

4) syntactic

5) complex approach: semantic, morphological, syntactical

6) functional (field structure of a part of speech)

7) cognitive

1) Why do grammarians disagree about the number of parts of speech?

2) What are the basic assumptions placing the interjection apart from the rest of the parts of speech?

1) Is it possible to say that function words are totally devoid of meaning?

1) Why did the mentioned principles prove inconsistent when used separately?

2) Comparison of the Russian and English languages. Which of the basic principles – semantic, morphological, syntactical – tends to be linguistically universal? Which of them may be characterized as more specific in view of the structural peculiarities of a given language?

Хлебникова М.Б.

А.А. Потебня, Ф.Ф. Фортунатов

O.Jespersen

H.Sweet

O.Jespersen, L. Hjelmslev

Ch. Fries

Л.В. Щерба, И.И. Мещанинов, А.А. Шахматов, В.В. Виноградов, Н.С. Поспелов, А.М. Пешковский, J. Lyons

Е.И. Шендельс, Н.И. Гулыга

Е.С. Кубрякова



Предварительный просмотр:

ПОЯСНИТЕЛЬНАЯ ЗАПИСКА

Настоящее пособие предназначено для студентов 3 курса очного и очно-заочного отделений факультета ГПН, обучающихся по специальности 022600 «Теория и методика преподавания иностранных языков и культур», квалификация «Лингвист, преподаватель», а также для студентов направления 131100 «Лингвистика», квалификация «Бакалавр».

Данное пособие является обучающим материалом нового поколения, поскольку его создание проводилось в контексте компетентностной модели подготовки современных специалистов.

Авторы пособия полагают, что восприятие процесса обучения сквозь призму понятия «компетенция» позволяет на практике реализовывать личностно-деятельностный подход и как следствие, готовить специалистов, обладающих такими личностными качествами, которые обеспечат им успешность в профессиональной деятельности. Применительно к «Рабочим тетрадям по теоретической грамматике» сформулированное положение означает следующее.

Как известно, в результате изучения теоретической грамматики английского языка у студентов должны сформироваться представления как о сущности, так и о возможных способах понимания и интерпретации грамматических явлений современного английского языка. Они должны научиться анализировать и сопоставлять различные исследовательские версии, выделять положительные и отрицательные стороны чьего-либо мнения, исходя из определенной точки отсчета для анализа. Иначе говоря, перспективной задачей здесь становится формирование критического мышления у студентов.

Характеризуя теоретическую грамматику как учебную дисциплину, нужно сказать, что предмет это чрезвычайно сложный, объемный, нагруженный терминологически, требующий умения теоретически мыслить, анализировать и синтезировать заключения на высоком уровне абстрактных обобщений, и – что немаловажно – подготавливающий студентов к изучению еще более сложной учебной дисциплины, какой является «История английского языка и введение в спецфилологию». Добавив к этому впервые вставшую необходимость воспринимать сложный материал на слух и фиксировать его (хотя бы частично) в письменной форме, мы получим практически невыполнимую для студентов задачу, даже если примем во внимание достаточно высокий уровень владения практическим языком у основной массы студентов.

Еще один момент, усложняющий изучение теоретической грамматики, связан с тем, что не существует единого учебника, к которому обучающиеся могли бы апеллировать как к непротиворечивому источнику сведений по дисциплине. Каждый из существующих в небольшом количестве трудов по теоретической грамматике, написанных для высшей школы, является изложением авторского видения системно-структурных отношений в современном английском языке и таким образом учебник сам по себе становится источником дискуссионных позиций. Адресуя студентов к этим изданиям, мы должны предусматривать возможные разночтения и в качестве опережения задавать определенные интерпретационные стратегии и тактики. Сказанное выше определило структуру пособия.

Каждый раздел пособия обладает содержательной самодостаточностью, все разделы имеют единообразную форму. Это таблица на альбомном листе формата А4, в которой предусмотрены следующие разделы с соответствующим наполнением: терминологический набор, обеспечивающий обсуждение вопроса, основные положения и концепции в рамках вопроса, дискуссионные положения, ссылки на смежные или контрастирующие теории и точки зрения. Наполнение граф таблицы ни в коей мере не дублирует содержание лекции или учебного издания, а лишь намечает ход рассуждений по вопросу, а также расставляет акценты в значительных по объему фрагментах курса.

Как видится, нет этапа изучения теоретической грамматики, где этому пособию нет места. С точки зрения содержательной направленности, во время лекций эти таблицы позволяют ориентироваться в ходе слушания материала, на этапе подготовки к ответам на семинарах они направляют самостоятельную поисковую деятельность студентов, при подготовке к контролирующим мероприятиям они позволяют быстро и эффективно повторить пройденное, а также задают логику высказывания на экзамене.

Таким образом, уже теперь можно сказать, что данное пособие выполняет личностно-развивающую функцию, развивая мышление и память студентов и, следовательно, расширяет, углубляет и способствует лучшему усвоению знаний, предусмотренных учебной программой.

Однако эта сторона не исчерпывает образовательный потенциал пособия. С его помощью мы полагаем возможным конкретизировать, углублять и детализировать такую сторону подготовки студентов, как умение работать с академической литературой, составлять конспекты и грамотно оформлять лекционные записи.

В этом смысле пособие представляет собой модель решения такой проблемной профессиональной задачи, как познавательно-поисковая. Так, раздел пособия - вопрос из курса теоретической грамматики - рассматривается как проблемная профессиональная ситуация, а предложенная в пособии форма задает быстрые и эффективные с использованием иностранного языка действия студентов, направленные на ее решение. Иначе говоря, мы предлагаем студентам вариант удобной формы записи, которую впоследствии они смогут распространить на все изучаемые теоретические дисциплины, если рассматривать их в качестве стимула для совершения действий, связанных с анализом и оценкой информации с точки зрения ее «профессиональной пригодности».

Наконец, снабдив разделы «Морфология» и «Синтаксис» небольшим по объему суммирующим фрагментом из области истории языка, в котором в сжатой форме создается своеобразный исторический фон, мы подготавливаем студентов к последующей работе над тем же материалом в диахронии, что станет задачей курса «История языка». В этом авторы видят возможность осуществления междисциплинарных связей, а также перспективу использования данного пособия в рамках модульного обучения.

Подводя итоги сказанному, можно говорить о том, что «Рабочие тетради по теоретической грамматике» - пособие по одной из теоретических дисциплин, предусмотренных действующими образовательными программами для подготовки лингвистов (в том числе для бакалаврской ступени), - позволяет решать некоторые актуальные задачи в области современного профессионального образования, поскольку оно нацелено на формирование профессионально значимых качеств будущих специалистов.

                                                                                        Авторы


THE SUBJECT OF THEORETICAL GRAMMAR.

TYPES OF GRAMMATICAL DESCRIPTION. HISTORICAL TRENDS IN GRAMMAR.

PARTS OF GRAMMAR. BASIC NOTIONS OF THEORETICAL GRAMMAR

Key notions (terms)

Basic Points

Debatable Issues

References

Grammar

morphology

syntax

Grammatical structure/ meaning/ form/category

Morpheme

Zero morpheme

Allomorphs

Root

Affix

(derivational/

inflectional or

form-building)

stem (base)

word/

word-form

I. Grammar as a linguistic science.

1. Everyday vs. scientific treatment of the word ‘grammar’. Parts of grammar.

2. Types of grammatical description:

1) prescriptive vs. descriptive;

2) historical vs. synchronous;

3) comparative vs. contrastive;

4) taxonomic vs. generative;

5) structural vs. functional.

3. The aims of the course of theoretical grammar. Reasons for possible discrepancies in grammatical descriptions. Schools of grammar:

1) traditional;

2) descriptive;

3) transformational;

4) structural;

5) functional.

Approaches to the analysis of grammatical data:

1) formal;

2) semantic;

3) formal-and-semantic;

4) functional

(a brief historical survey).

II. Morphology (M) and syntax (S) as parts of grammar. Respective subject-matters.

The status of the word in theoretical description.

III. Basic notions of theoretical grammar used in morphology.

1. Grammatical structure.

2. Grammatical meaning (relative character). Grammatical forms as representations of grammatical meaning.

3. Morphological units:

1) the morpheme (possible definitions);

2) the word-form;

3) the word.

4. Means of form-building:

1) productive: suffixation (5+4 inflectional morphemes):

2) morphophonemic alteration;

3) suppletion.

5. Types of word-forms: synthetic vs. analytical forms.

6. Grammatical category.

Is knowledge of grammar essential for the use of language?

What kind of grammar do we study in the University?

Is the distinction universally recognized by different schools of grammar? Compare, e.g.:

1) traditionalists

2) descriptivists

3) transformationalists

(Can you think of any problematic issues merging between M and S basing on your knowledge of practical English grammar?)

Is the grammatical structure of all languages uniform?

What are the essential features of inflectional morphemes that distinguish them from the other type of morphemes?

What are the peculiarities of suffixation in ModE?

Are there any restrictions in the use of morphophonemic variation and suppletion?

Is an analytical form a word form or a word-combination? Is the notion of discontinuous morpheme helpful in defining the status of a word-form?

O.G. Curme, O. Jespersen

Z. Harris, Ch. Hockett, E. Nida, A. Hill

N. Chomsky,

J. Muir

L. Bloomfield, H. Gleason, М.В. Хлебникова

А.И. Смирницкий, Л.С. Бархударов

А.И. Смирницкий, Л.С. Бархударов,

А.В. Бондарко, Т.А. Расторгуева,

М.В. Хлебникова,

В.Н. Ярцева,

М.Я.Блох


THE NOUN. THE CATEGORIES OF NUMBER, CASE, GENDER.

Key notions (terms)

Basic Points

Debatable Issues

References

animate  inanimate

countable

uncountable

collective

concrete

abstract

common

proper names

singular

plural

Singularia / Pluralia Tantum

quantity

genitive/ possessive

common

“limited case” theory

Positional cases

 

Postpositional cases

Analytical cases

I. 1. The noun as a part of speech. Semantic, morphological (lexical and grammatical) characteristics, syntactic features (functions and combinability).

2. Semantic classes of nouns

II. The category of number in the noun. General definition.

1. The formal expression of the number of the noun

  1. productive (phonologically conditioned) allomorphs
  2. non-productive (morphologically conditioned) allomorphs
  3. noun – verb combination in the collective nouns

2. The meaning of number forms.

 Singular : 1) oneness 2) uncountability 3) generalization

Plural : more-than-oneness (= plurality)

3. Different language means of expressing quantity:

  1. lexical
  2. lexico-grammatical
  3. morphological

III. The category of case in the noun. General definition.

1. The formal expression of the case of the noun

  1. in the phonologically conditioned variants of singular nouns
  2. in the regular and irregular plural nouns

2. The functions of case forms.

  1. genitive case:
  1. possessive
  2. subjective
  3. objective
  4. adverbial
  5. destination
  6. qualitative / attributive
  1. common case

3. Other views on the number of cases in English

  1. three-case system

  1. four-case system

  1. the theory of possessive postposition

  1. the theory of prepositional cases

  1. the no-case theory

III. The category of gender in the noun. General definition.

1. Means of expressing the gender of the noun:

  1. lexical
  2. morphological
  3. grammatical

1) Do all nouns express number?

2) What semantic types of nouns possess both grammatical forms of number?

3)What nouns are referred to as Singularia / Pluralia Tantum? What is the reason for their existence?

1) What relations of the extralinguistic reality are represented by the category of number?

2) What semantic opposition is represented by the contrasted singular and plural forms of countable nouns?

3) Why is the meaning of the singular form less definite than the meaning of the plural form?

1) Is the use of the grammatical forms of number obligatory?

2) What factors can influence the speaker’s choice of other means of expressing number?

1) Do all nouns express case?

2) How many morphological forms express the category of case?

3) What semantic classes of nouns can build up the genitive case?

4) What is the grammatical meaning of the category of case?

5) How (by what method) are different functions of the genitive case forms defined?

6) Do the forms of the common and genitive case make up a rigid semantic opposition? Is the use of the genitive case obligatory?

1) What other parts of speech possess the grammatical category of case?

2) What is the historical background of  ‘s?

3) Is ‘s added only to single nouns or to other parts of speech and syntactic complexes as well?

4) Can the grammatical relations, expressed by the genitive case, be represented by other language means?

1) Are there any form-building means of expressing gender?

2) Can the gender of the noun be defined as a grammatical category?

See textbooks of practical English Grammar.

See textbooks of practical English Grammar.

Cf. lists of Sing. / Pluralia Tantum nouns in different languages. Do they denote the same things?

Л.С. Бархударов

А.И.Смирницкий

See textbooks of practical English Grammar.

M.Deutschbein

А.И.Смирницкий, Л.С. Бархударов

Cf. the grammatical peculiarities of the cases in the English and   Russian languages

H.Sweet

M.Deutschbein

Г.Н. Воронцова

G.O.Curme

М.Я.Блох,

Е.М.Гордон,

И.П.Крылова

See the discussion of the nature of a grammatical category

THE NOUN. THE CATEGORIES OF GENDER, NUMBER, CASE. Historical survey

In Old Eng. (in the Vth-Xth centuries AD) the noun had a well-developed system of inflections that were the integrated expression of three morphological categories: the number, case and gender. Nouns fell into eight types of declension. The core of the word-stock was formed by words belonging to a-stem declension. The noun paradigm included four cases (the Nominative, Genitive, Dative and the Accusative), 2 number forms (the sing. and the pl.) and 3 gender distinctions (the masculine, the feminine and the neuter gender). The Nom. and the Accus. cases were often homonymous. The gender distinction was governed by the type of declension, so the biological and grammatical gender of nouns did not always overlap, i.e. an Old Eng. noun wīfmån (woman) of root-stem declension was masculine and a noun mæʒden (maid) of a-stem declension was neuter. Inanimate nouns distinguished gender according to their stem too:

dæʒ (day) – masculine, meolc (milk) – feminine, scip (ship) – neuter. Besides, the gender of a noun was not so much expressed by the form of the noun itself but rather by the form of the adjective or of the pronoun it was qualified by.

In the XIth – XVth cс, due to the reduction tendency that influenced the development of Eng. unstressed vowels, the inflections were first weakened and finally lost. This led to the following consequences:

  1. the Nominative, Dative and the Accusative cases fell together to form the modern Common Case;
  2. the ending –es of the Genitive singular masculine nouns of a-stem declension was reduced to –s, to which the apostrophe was added in the XVIIth century to mark the modern Genitive Case;
  3. the inflection –as of the Nominative plural masculine nouns of a-stem declension developed into the suffix –s/-es to mark the modern plural form;
  4. as the heritage of Old Eng. declension types there remain the irregular plurals, such as children, oxen (n-stem declension);  geese,  feet, teeth, mice, lice, men, women (root-stem declension), as well as sheep, deer, swine (a – stem declension neuter) which had the zero ending both in their singular and plural forms, because in those times people saw no individuals in their cattle and perceived them as a mass;
  5. gender distinctions were completely lost. The reference to the gender of the noun has ever since been made through the personal pronouns he, she, it. In the XVIIth century there was introduced the possessive pronoun “its” specially to oppose it to the historical “his” form, that had been used indiscriminately for centuries.

THE ARTICLE

Key Notions (Terms)

Main Theoretical Points

Debatable Issues

References

indefinite

definite

zero /

meaningful absence of the article

individualizing

restricting

generalizing/ generic

nominating

classifying

aspective

numeric

actualization

theme

rheme

I. The status of the article. Basic points of view:

  1. a part of speech;

  1. a morpheme;

  1. a function word or a determiner.

II. The number of articles. The problem of the zero article:

  1. the theory of 3 articles

  1. the theory of 2 articles

III. The meanings and functions of the article:

  1. morphological
  2. syntactic
  3. semantic / communicative

Specific functions of the articles:

  1. definite
  2. indefinite
  3. absence of the article

IV. The relation of the article to other grammatical phenomena:

  1. the category of definiteness / indefiniteness;

  1. the actual division of the sentence (Functional sentence perspective)

1) Does the article possess lexical meaning?

2) What other parts of speech can the article be associated with?

3)How does the article specify morphological properties of the noun?

1) What words can substitute the article?

2) Can the article be separated from the noun by other words? Is it possible to use suffixes in the same way?

1) What other words can be treated as determiners?

2) What is the place of the article among other determiners?

1) Is it possible for a word to have a zero-form?

2) Why is the term “absence of the article” inexact?

What  factors can influence the function of the article?

1) How does the article represent the relation of a word to the object of the extralinguistuic reality it refers to? What other language means can perform the same function?

2) Is there any connection between the category of definiteness/ indefiniteness and the division of sentence information into new and known? How does the article participate in this division?

А.И.Смирницкий

O.Jespersen

Г.Н.Воронцова

Л.С.Бархударов

М.Я.Блох

R.Quirk et al.

Б.А.Ильиш

See practical grammars of English

See practical grammars of English

V.Mathesius

Б.А.Ильиш

THE ARTICLE. Historical survey

The article started to arise as a new functional part of speech from Old English pronouns in their weakened unstressed position. The indefinite pronoun ān was weakened to “a(n)”. The demonstrative pronoun sē was weakened to “the”, the sound [θ] coming from the pronoun`s oblique cases. Both the indefinite and the demonstrative pronoun soon became invariable and lost their declension in the XIIth century, thus turning into the indefinite and the definite article respectively.

ITEMS OF CONTROVERSY IN THE PART OF SPEECH CLASSIFICATION

Key Notions (terms)

Main Theoretical Points

Debatable Issues

References

Parts of speech

Pronoun

PRONOUNS 

I. The status of pronouns among other words.

1. Pronouns are not a separate part of speech:

1) broad treatment: Prns ≈ Ns (e.g., a boy/ he, a girl/ she, a dog/ it); Prns ≈ Adjs (a big/ my/ some book);

2) restricted treatment: Prns ≈ N, i.e. instead of a noun.

2. Pronouns as a separate part of speech.

Part-of-speech char-cs of the pronoun as compared to the same features in Nouns and Adjectives:

1) categorial meaning;

2) morphological peculiarities:

- case

- number

-person

-gender;

3) syntactic features: combinability.

II. The status of the pronoun among other parts of speech:

1) a notional word

2) a function words

- peculiarities of their categorical meaning;

- a closed system of words.

- structural words: intermediate between

        notional and function words

            /                                   \

can perform                an abstract categorial

independent                 meaning

syntactic functions

Are pronouns a separate part of speech?

What are the similarities and differences in the functioning of pronouns and nouns/ pronouns and adjectives?

Are pronouns notional or function words?

Are there any grammatical classes of words showing similar functional behaviour?

H. Sweet, Л.С. Щерба;

O. Jespersen: I see you ≠ Otto Jespersen sees Mary Brown

The classical (traditional) school of grammar

Л.С. Бархударов

Words of the category of state

STATIVES

Analogy with the Russian language: such words as ясно, смешно, and some other short adjectives used predicatively present the category of state.

1. Part-of-speech characteristics:

1) semantic

2) morphological

3) syntactic

2. Part-of-speech characteristics:

1)Semantic peculiarities: categorial meaning (cf. adj-s)

2) morphological structure (the prefix a-)

3) syntactic

Which of the known principles of classification of words into parts of speech work fully or partially in case of statives? Is it possible to distinguish a separate part of speech on the basis of a limited number of features?

Л.С. Щерба, В.В. Виноградов

Б.А. Ильиш,

Н.Н.Иванова,

В.В. Жигадло,

Л.Л. Иофик

THE PRONOUN. THE CATEGORIES OF CASE AND NUMBER.  Historical survey

Old Eng. personal pronouns had a four – case system: the Nomin., the Genitive, the Dative and the Accus.. With the course of time:

1) In the XIth century personal pronouns of the Genitive case lost their object function, started to be used attributively and formed a separate group of pronouns – possessive ones. At first forms like my/mine were not conditioned by the syntactic position of a pronoun so much as by its phonetic environment: the former was used before consonants, the latter occurred before vowels. But as the number of words starting with consonants most evidently prevailed, the form my began to be used more widely as a conjoint one and the form mine turned into an absolute form in the XVIIIth century.

2) The other 2 oblique cases of personal pronouns (the Dative and the Accus.) gradually fell together to form the Objective Case in the XIVth c..

The category of number of Old English personal pronouns comprised three forms: the singular, the plural and the dual number (“we both” and “you both”). But in the XIth c. the dual number ceased to exist. The idea of “duality” has ever since manifested itself only in indefinite pronouns: both, either and the other.  

The Modern English pronoun you has no number distinctions for the reason that the Old English pronoun of the second person singular þū (thou) fell in disuse in the XVIIIth century along with the verbal ending –st-, due to which the category of person in the verbal system is a lexical-syntactic category. The reason why the Nominative and the Objective Cases of this pronoun sound similar is that historically you is the form of the oblique cases (ēow) which ousted the original Nominative form ʒē (ye) in the XVIIth century.

THE ADJECTIVE. THE DEGREES OF COMPARISON

Historical survey

In Old English there were three basic means of building forms of degrees of comparison that can be traced to present-day forms:

1) suffixation (old – older – oldest; far – farther - farthest)        

2) suffixation and vowel interchange (old – elder – eldest; far – further – furthest)

3) suppletion (good – better – best; bad – worse – worst; little – less – least; much/many – more – most), which in Modern English is of common Indoeuropean origin and constitutes the bulk of irregular forms.

Analytical forms started to appear in the XVth century and at first were used along with grammatical suffixation. Pleonastic forms like “more fresher” and “most beautifulest” were in full swing in Shakespeare`s times. The prescriptive Grammars of the XVIIIth century imposed strict rules that have regulated the use of the forms of the degrees of comparison ever since.

THE VERB: THE CATEGORY OF TENSE

Key Notions and Terms

Main Theoretical Points

Debatable Issues

References

time/ tense

present, past, future tenses

modality of uncertainty (futurity)

the opposition 'present/non-past – past'

I. Time vs. tense. Tense systems in different languages.

II. English tenses viewed traditionally: the present, past and future tense-forms.

1. The present tense: form and meanings (free, lexically and structurally bound).

2. The past tense: form and meanings.

3. The future tense: form and meanings.

Ш. The problem of the future tense.

1. Shall/will +V as an analytical tense form: The role of each component in the form.

2. Shall/will +V as a free word combination.

The status of ‘shall’ and ‘will’.

3. Other means of expressing the future:

1) lexical

2) lexico-grammatical

3) grammatical.

1) Is there any contradiction between the philosophical notion of time and time divisions and the tenses that convey this division? Do the grammatical meanings of tenses always coincide with the time layer they refer to?

2) What is a possible solution for the problem of the present time in a linguistic description? How can we fix it?

1) What proves that shall/ will can be treated as auxiliary verbs? (Consider their lexical and modal meanings, formal representation in ModE).

2) The status of shall/will is debatable in theoretical grammar, isn't it? (Consider: the structural patterns for modal predicates and the form of the future, the origin and the modal meanings of shall/ will; the notion of a discontinuous morpheme as applied to the structure 'shall/will + V).

2) What determines the choice of the means of expressing the future?

Л.С. Бархударов

А.И.Смирницкий,

Б.А. Ильиш

O. Jespersen, A.Allen, R. Quirk et al., Л.С. Бархударов

VERB. THE CATEGORY OF TENSE

Historical survey

The category of tense initially comprised only two forms in Old English: the present and the past without any specification as to the duration of an action, its completion, repeatedness, priority and etc. The reference to the future was made by means of:

1) the Present Indicative tense and adverbs with a future meaning (in present-day English the Present Indefinite and the Present Continuous forms have retained this function)

2) verbs sculan and willan, which conveyed the modal meanings of obligation and volition and were followed by the infinitive. Together they formed the compound modal predicate (in Modern English they have been preserved as modal verbs too, e.g. “will you hold it for me?” or “shall I open the window?”). This combination expressed a conceivable (expected, planned, desirable, potential, hypothetical) future action but not realized yet.

For the abstract future analytical forms to appear and become a morphological means:

1). sculan and willan were to lose their direct lexical meaning of obligation or volition and their independent status and to acquire the grammatical meaning of the person and number;

2). the auxiliary and the notional verbs were to express the grammatical meaning of aspect and tense. To sum it up, a semantic shift from a modal way of expressing future actions to a way of conveying “the objective future” was to take place.

The relative future forms arose in the XVIIth century from the forms of the Past Subjunctive of the above mentioned verbs sculan and willan - scolde (should) and wolde (would), which had turned into auxiliaries too.


THE VERB: THE CATEGORY OF ASPECT

Key Notions (Terms)

Main Theoretical Points

Debatable Issues

References

stative

dynamic

terminative

durative

common – continuous (progressive)

perfective - imperfective

retrospective/ transmissive

limited duration

(in)complete

permanent

temporary

habitual

repeated

future

emotionally coloured

I. The verb as a part of speech. Aspectual features of verbal semantics.

II. The category of aspect in the verb. General definition.

1. Formal expression. Different views on the number of aspect forms:

  1. two forms (binary approach)
  2. three and more forms (semantic approach)

2. The meaning and semantic functions of  the aspect forms:

  1. Continuous aspect

2)   Common aspect

3. Other language means of expressing aspect:

  1. lexical
  2. lexico-grammatical
  3. syntactical

Is the aspectual characteristics inherently present in a verbal lexeme, or is it revealed only in context?

  1. What kinds of forms possess this category: finite or non-finite?
  2. What grammatical forms are generally considered to express aspect?
  3. Can all verbs build up the Continuous form? Does the use of a stative verb in the Continuous form involve any semantic modification?
  4. What other grammatical forms are sometimes considered to express aspectual meaning?

  1. What relations of extra-linguistic reality are reflected in the category of aspect?
  2. Do the Common and Continuous forms build up a strict semantic opposition or do they overlap in meaning? Which form has a wider semantic sphere?

3) What function(s) of the Continuous forms cannot be expressed by the Common forms?

  1. Is there any correlation between lexical and grammatical means of expressing aspect in speech?
  2. Is the use of the Continuous forms obligatory? What Continuous forms (present, past, future) are more distinct from their Common counterparts?
  3. What factors can influence the speaker’s choice of the aspect form?

See textbooks of practical Eng Gr-r

Z.Vendler

А.И.Смирницкий

Л.С. Бархударов

А.Корсаков

B. Comrie

Г.Н.Воронцова

Н.А.Слюсарева

А.В.Бондарко

R.Quirk et al.

O.Jespresen

See textbooks of practical Eng Gr.

 

THE VERB. THE CATEGORY OF ASPECT. Historical survey

The Continuous forms are believed  to be the youngest of all the existing analytical forms of the English verb. Their origin has not been positively established and, according to different theories, can be traced to a few syntactic patterns:

1) the Old English link-verb weorðan (to become) + Participle I, which denoted a quality or characteristic state of the subject, or, sometimes, habitual actions;

2) the Old English link-verb bēon (to be) and Participle I formed the compound nominal predicate, which was used to express imperfective actions of indefinite duration and simultaneousness. The participle in Old English could not either take a direct object or be modified by an adverb yet.

3) bēon + preposition on + verbal noun. In the XIIth century Participle I and the verbal noun fell together. The participle borrowed the noun`s verbal semantics, the idea of a process at a definite stretch of time. In return it lent the future gerund its ending – ing – and its verbal nature. As a result, the participle started to be more tightly connected with the verb “to be” rather than with the subject and developed new adverbial functions. The phon. & sem. similarity between Part. I and the verbal noun fostered the development of new forms – the Cont. ones.

The setup of the gramm. category of aspect is referred to the XVIIIth century. Before that time the Common and Cont. forms co-existed, the relation between them being that of free variation rather than opposition: the two forms were used interchangingly to express the same meanings. The overlapping of the semantic spheres of these forms has to a certain extent remained in present-day English.

The participle was to develop tense and voice distinctions. Tense distinctions were to express simultaneousness or priority in relation to the finite form of the predicate. The Perfect Continuous forms along with the Continuous, the Perfect Continuous Infinitives and Passive Participle forms did not either appear until the end of the XVIIIth c..

THE VERB: THE CATEGORY OF PHASE

Key Notions (Terms)

Main Theoretical Points

Debatable Issues

References

terminative

durative

phase = order = time correlation

anterior tense

retrospective/ transmissive

phase/ time (cor)relation

perfectivity

priority

completeness

result

relevance for the present (past, future) situation

I. The verb as a part of speech. Aspectual features of verbal semantics.

II. The category of phase in the verb. General definition.

1. Formal expression. Different views on the grammatical status of perfect forms:

  1. tense forms

  1. aspect forms

  1. phase forms

2. The meaning and semantic functions of  the perfect and non-perfect forms:

  1. perfect forms
  1. present
  2. past
  3. future

2) non-perfect forms

3. Other language means of expressing priority:

1) lexical

2) lexico-grammatical

     3) syntactical

1) What kinds of forms possess this category: finite or non-finite?

2)  From what point fo view do perfect forms characterise an action?

3) What aspective features are included in the semantics of the perfect forms?

4) Can perfect forms occur in context without any reference to another action or time?

5) How can two different aspectual meanings combine in one form (i.e. the perfect continuous)?

1) Do present and past/future perfect forms express the same semantic functions? How does the category of tense influence the semantics of different perfect forms?

2) Are perfect and non-perfect forms strictly opposed to each other?

  1. In what contexts is the use of the perfect forms obligatory?
  2. What perfect forms (present, past, future) are more distinct from their non-perfect counterparts?
  3. Why are the perfect forms sometimes used alongside with other means of expressing priority?

See textbooks of practical English Grammar.

А.Корсаков

B.Comrie

Г.Н.Воронцова

А.И.Смирницкий

Л.С. Бархударов

See the discussion of the nature of a grammatical category

See textbooks of practical English Grammar.

 

THE VERB. THE CATEGORY OF PHASE (ORDER,TIME – CORRELATION)

Historical survey

The modern perfect forms originate from the combination of:

  1. the Old English link-verb bēon (to be) and Participle II of intransitive verbs (it has left traces in Modern English, e.g. “he is gone” or “the tree is fallen”);
  2. the Old English verb habban (to have) followed by a direct object and Participle II of transitive verbs, in which the verb had its direct “possessive” meaning, while the participle, in its turn, expressed the idea of completion and passivity (this pattern has partially survived in present-day expressions “to have something done”).

In both cases the participle preserved its nominal nature and was declined.

With the course of time, namely during the XIth  - XIVth centuries, the participle lost its case-system. The verb “to have” (“haven” at that time) gradually lost its lexical meaning, dropped the direct object and ousted the verb “to be” even in constructions with intransitive verbs, thus turning into the only auxiliary of the perfect form.

Non – finite forms developed the category of time – correlation later than finite forms did. To this testify expressions like “thank you for reading it” or “I remember doing it”.

The category of phase or time – correlation was fully established in the XVIIIth century.

THE VERB: THE CATEGORY OF VOICE

Key Notions (Terms)

Main Theoretical Points

Debatable Issues

References

valency

transitive/ intransitive verbs

Voice

active

passive

middle

reflexive

reciprocal

direct

indirect

prepositional

adverbial

I. Valency as the inherent property of the verbal lexeme.

II. The category of voice in the verb. General definition. Formation.

1. Semantic classification of voices.

2. Active voice as non-passive voice.

3. Types of passive constructions in ModE:

4. The grammatical meanings to the combination ‘to be + Participle II’.

5. Reasons for the frequent occurrence of the Passive Voice in ModE.

1) info- division of the sentence

2) relative relevance of the doer of the action: typical cases

3) grammatical potential of the English verb: participation in different passive constructions

Is it always possible to determine the transitive or intransitive behaviour of the verb separated from the context?

1) Can all structures expressing the passive meaning be treated as the form of the passive voice?

2) What kinds of forms possess this category: finite or non-finite?

3) How many voices are there in the English verb?

1) What feature of the verb (semantic, morphological or syntactic) accounts for the possible appearance of the voices other than active and passive?

2) Why the classification in the left-hand column (II.1) inconsistent?

Can all verbs participate in the four listed passive constructions? Are there any restrictions in the use of passive constructions?

Does the combination present a morphological or is it a syntactic unit? (Is it some kind of a passive voice or a predicate?)

The French school of grammar (L. Tesniere)

Б.А. Ильиш,

Л.С. Бархударов

See the discussion of the nature of a grammatical category

See textbooks of practical English Grammar.

R. Quirk et al.

Cf. the grammatical peculiarities of the Russian lge (sentence structure displaying differences in the actual division; verbal one-member sentences; the number of passive constructions)

THE VERB. THE CATEGORY OF VOICE

Historical survey

The modern passive forms arose from the following free lexical combinations of:

  1. the link-verb bēon (to be) and Participle II;
  2. the link-verb weorðan (to become) and Participle II.

The category of voice was a debatable category in Old English, for the participle at that time was rather nominal than verbal in nature, performed the function of the predicative and agreed with the subject of the passive structure in the gender, number and case. The elements of this structure were not tightly linked and were very often separated from each other by other words. Besides, the participle could sometimes precede the link-verbs. The doer of an action was introduced by a variety of prepositions, e.g. by, mid, þurh, from or of.    

Because the Dative and the Accusative fell together and ceased to exist in the XIVth century, this in the long run paved the way for the arrival of the indirect passive structure and other types of passive constructions in English. The verb weorðan fell in disuse. The participle lost its declension and developed new adverbial functions. It started to be used close to the verb “to be” (“been” at that time) and began to express an action rather than a state. On the whole, it gradually became more verbal in nature.

Non – finite forms developed voice distinctions much later than finite forms did. To this testifies the existence of set expressions, e.g. “the book is worth reading”, “the dress needs ironing”, “what is cooking?”. The Passive Continuous forms did not appear until the XIXth century.

                                                          THE VERB. MODALITY AND MOOD

Key notions and terms

Main theoretical points

Debatable issues

References

Modality

The Indicative, Imperative, Subjunctive Mood

The Conditional Mood

The Suppositional Mood

The Conjunctive Mood

The Oblique Moods

1. The content of the notional category of modality

2. Types of modality: objective & subjective. Means of expressing modality:

a) mood forms;

b) modal verbs;

c) modal words.

3. The grammatical category of Mood as the principal means of expressing Objective Modality.

4.The status and number of mood forms:

1) oblique moods,

2) the Imperative Mood.

1) How can the category of Modality be defined?

2) What other categories does it correlate with?

  1. Is it justified to distinguish between subjective and objective modality as two separate types or is this distinction artificial? (Consider the following example: If you could come, I would be delighted.)
  2. Which means of expressing modality are always expressed by verb forms?
  3. What are the means of expressing subjective and objective modality? (consider grammatical, lexico-grammatical, lexical and phonological means)

  1. How can the meaning of the grammatical category of Mood be defined?
  2. How many Mood forms can be distinguished in Modern English? What is this distinction based on meaning (semantics) or morphological form ?

1) Are the following forms treated as homonymous or polysemantic:

- did/ had done

- should / would do

- modal verb + Infinitive

A.В. Бондарко

Г.В. Колшанский

В.В. Виноградов

Г.В. Колшанский

Н.А. Слюсарева

Л.С. Бархударов, Д.А. Штелинг

Г.А. Вейхман

Г.Н. Воронцова

А.И.Смирницкий

И.Б. Хлебникова

M.Y. Blokh

M. Joos

R. Quirk, S. Greenbaum, G. Leech, J. A. Svartvik

Л.С. Бархударов,

А.И. Смирницкий,

И.Б. Хлебникова

M. Deutschbein

THE VERB. THE CATEGORY OF MOOD

Historical survey

The category of mood existed in Old English and comprised the same three forms as it does now: the Indicative Mood, the Subjunctive Mood and the Imperative Mood. The functions of the Subjunctive Mood were larger than they are now for the following reasons:

1). the forms of the Subjunctive Mood were used to express unreal and problematic actions;

2). they were structurally dependent in particular types of clauses;

3). they were used to convey reported speech and thus formed an opposition between real events and supposed ones, at the same time serving as a means of the sequence of tenses.

There were two forms of the Subjunctive Mood: the Present Subjunctive Mood form (e.g., hē wrīte), opposed to the Present Indicative Mood form (e.g., hē wrīteþ), and the Past Subjunctive Mood form (e.g., hē write), opposed to the Past Indicative Mood form (e.g., hē wrāt).

In the XVth century the form of the Past Subjunctive finally fell together with the form of the Past Indicative. To compensate for this new analytical forms arose in the XVIIIth century from the combination of the former Past Subjunctive form of sculan and willan - scolde and wolde respectively - with the infinitive. By that time should and would had lost their direct meaning and turned into modal auxiliaries to form the compound modal predicate. The old synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood (e.g. the former Present Subjunctive Mood form “I suggest he write” or the former Past Subjunctive Mood form “I wish he wrote”) are regularly opposed now to the new analytical ones (would/should write or would/should have written) and to the Indicative forms “he writes”/”he wrote”.  


SYNTAX AS PART OF GRAMMAR. THE MAIN UNITS OF SYNTAX

Key Notions (terms)

Main Theoretical points

Debatable issues

References

word

word group

sentence

text

clause

1. Syntax as part of grammar. The subject matter

of syntax.

2. The main units of syntax.

3. Definitions: the word-group vs. the sentence. The clause.

4. Predication as the main feature of the sentence. 5. Aspects of the sentence:

1) structural

2) semantic

3) pragmatic

4) actual.

6. The text as a succession of smaller syntactic elements (sentences)

Do all linguists single out syntax as part of grammar?

What unit of lge connects m-gy and syntax?

1) What features make the sentence as a unit more prominent from a syntactic viewpoint?

2) Why is it next to impossible to provide a convincing definition of the sentence?

How do the syntactic studies benefit from treating the text as a unit of syntax?

see “Morphology and syntax”

А.И.Смирницкий

L.Bloomfield, N. Chomsky, Ch. Fries, Л.С.Бархударов,

R.Quirk et al.

SYNTAX.  Historical survey

Old English was characterized by free word order, for it was a fully inflected language. Free word order meant a distant position of grammatically interconnected elements. However, inversion was essential after adverbial modifiers opening the sentence. Besides that, Old English was also characterized by the so called synthetic word order in subordinate clauses which meant putting their predicates in the final position. Coordination and subordination were not formally distinguished as they are now because the same conjunctions were used in either case with a slight shift in meaning. The Old English sentence could be polynegative: it could contain double negation. Formal or structural subjects in impersonal sentences did not appear until the XVIIIth century (e.g. “me thinketh”).

In Old English after verbs of sensual perception there was used a structure “the Accusative with the Infinitive” or “the Accusative with the Participle” which is now referred to as “Complex Object”. The participle in it agreed with the noun or the pronoun in the gender, number and case. The Absolute Participle Construction also existed at that time with the logical subject expressed not in the Nominative as it is today, but in the Dative.

After the complete loss of inflections in the XVIIIth century:

1) Word order became fixed. Cases of essential inversion were mainly limited to questions and to the occurrence of negative words at the beginning of the sentence.

2) The sentence could not be “subjectless” any more and there appeared a whole range of dummy formal subjects: impersonal, anticipatory, emphatic.

3) The case system collapsed and, as a result, the direct and indirect objects could only be identified according to their position in the sentence.

4) The first do - forms in statements started to appear as early as in the XVIth century and initially were not connected with emphasis. If this pattern had survived there would be no irregular verbs now (e.g. one would say: “I did know” instead of “I knew”). In Shakespeare`s time questions could be put both by means of the auxiliary “to do” and without it. The sentence became mononegative. Negations with the verb “to do” did not appear until the XVth century and became essential only in the XIXth.

5) The rules of the sequence of tenses arrived as early as in the XVIIth century.

6) Coordination and subordination began to be strictly distinguished and both developed their individual array of formal markers.


SYNTACTIC RELATIONS BETWEEN WORDS

Key Notions (terms)

Main Theoretical Points

Debatable Issues

References

word group

phrase

coordination

homogeneous members

subordination

agreement

concord

government

predicate rels

reciprocal reln

interdependence

cumulation

appositive rels

attributive rels

objective (completive) rels

copulative rels

  1. Combinability of words:

- from a semantic viewpoint

- from a formal viewpoint

- from a mixed viewpoint

  1. 1. Main types of relations

1) coordination

2) subordination

3) predication

2. Means of realization:

1) word order, coordinating conjunctions (copulative, disjunctive, adversative)

2) word order, subordinating conjunctions, word form

3) word order, word form.

III. Subtypes of subordination: agreement and government

IV. Cumulation

V.Apposition

VI. The clause [S + P] as a peculiar type of the W group. The predicate rels.

VII.Types of rels between Ws from a syntactic position:

  • predicative
  • attributive
  • objective (completive)
  • adverbial
  • copulative

What do you think is more important for the arrangement of Ws into a larger unit: the lexical mng of Ws and/or their gramm. combinability?

What is the difference between the ‘strict’ and ‘narrow’ treatment of the term ‘agreement’?

What restriction upon the cumulated units is to be introduced?

Why can’t apposition be analyzed within the framework of coordination or subordination?

1) What makes predicate relations similar to both coordination and subordination?

2) Do all grammarians treat the clause among W groups?

Can the classification in terms of parts of the sentence embrace all the possible rels between Ws in the sentence?

Pract. Grammars of English

Б.А.Ильиш

R.Quirk

S.Greenbaum

R.Quirk

F.Palmer

H.Whitehall

H.Sweet

E.Kruisinga

L.Hjelmslev

А.И.Смирницкий

Л.С.Бархударов

 А.И.Смирницкий


STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE SENTENCE. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES

Key notions and terms

Main theoretical points

Debatable issues

References

clause

sentences; simple

composite

comlpex

compound

1-member

2-member

extended unextended

elliptical :

- syntagmatic/

contextual

- paradigmatic/ grammatical

declarative

interrogative :

general

special

alternative

disjunctive /

tag-questions

echoing

imperative

exclamatory

I. The definition of the sentence as a complicated grammatical phenomenon. Aspects of the sentence. The structural aspect of the sentence. The clause.

II. Division of the sentence into mono- and poly-predicative units.

III. The role of the principal members in the division of the sentence.

IV. The role of the secondary members in the division of the sentence.

V. Complete and incomplete sentences (a structural and a semantic viewpoint).

1. One-member sentences (exclamatory, imperative, verbless imperatives, nominative sentences).

2. Elliptical sentences (types).

III. Types of the simple sentence. Word order intonation as a marker of a sentence type. Main and minor types of questions.

IV. Transposition of the structural types of sentences:

1) declarative, interrogative, imperative sentences as exclamatory sentences;

2) declarative -> general question

3) negative general questions -> exclamatory sentences

4) positive general questions -> exclamations

5) rhetorical questions -> declarative sentences (statements)

6) rhetorical special questions (positive form – negative meaning)

1) Is there an exhausting definition of the sentence?

2) Is the simple sentence part of a composite unit or is it an independent structure?

Is it necessary for a sentence to have both the subject and the predicate? Does the absence of one of the principal members make the sentence defective?

Why do we expand sentences?

Is the notion of incompleteness always treated grammatically? What is the sphere of use of elliptical sentences

1) Is there any correlation between the structure of the sentence and the communicative purpose it serves (the structural classification and pragmatic types of sentences)?

2) Can we call imperative sentences one-member sentences or elliptical sentences? What subtype of ellipsis do they represent?

3) Are exclamatory sentences a structural or a communicative subtype?

What feature of the sentence (beyond the sphere of grammar) is involved in realization of transposition?

See “Syntax. The main notions of syntax”.

Л.С.Бархударов


THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE SENTENCE. THE SECONDARY MEMBERS OF THE SENTENCE

Key Notions (terms)

Main Theoretical Points

Debatable Issues

References

parts of the sentence

principal/

main

secondary

subject notional formal

predicate

simple verbal

phraseological

compound

verbal

aspective

modal

nominal

link verb

predicative

double

object

 direct

indirect

prepositional

cognate

attribute

apposition

adverbial modifier

I. Division of the sentence into sentence parts as reflection of rels of objective reality. The inventory of the main and secondary parts of the sentence.

II. The Subject

1. The status of the subject in the sentence (structural, semantic and functional aspects).

2. Structural and morphological means of expressing the subject.

3. Classification of the subject: notional and formal subjects. Formal subjects in modern English: it, there. Types of ‘it’ used as a subject.

Ш. The Predicate.

1. The status of the predicate in the sentence (structural, semantic and functional aspects).

2. The predicate and expression of predication.

3. Structural classification of the predicate: simple (verbal and phraseological) and compound (verbal modal, aspective and nominal). The double predicate. Mixed types of the predicate.

IV. Semantic classification of the predicate:

-process predicates

qualifying predicates

objective predicates

adverbial predicates

V. The semantic and grammatical role of:

- the object (direct, indirect, indirect prepositional, cognate)

- the attribute (detached and undetached attributes; apposition)

- the adverbial modifier (of time, place etc.)

VI. Structural and morphological means of expressing the secondary parts of the sentence.

VII. Intermediate cases in the classification of the secondary parts of the sentence:

- the object

- the attribute and the adverbial modifier

- the object and the adverbial modifier

- complex subjects and complex object

Is the sentence structure a universal phenomenon? Is the delimitation true of all languages?

1) Are the subject and the predicate of equal importance for the sentence?

2) What is the difference between the formal and notional ‘it’?

3) Is it always possible to convert sentences with the anticipatory ‘it’ into personal sentences? What is the syntactic role of the part making the semantic subject of such sentences?

1) What makes it possible to discuss the combinations ‘to be  + adverb’ and ‘to be + preposition + noun’ as a variety of the compound nominal predicate?

2) What are the reasons for classifying word groups like ‘intend to leave’, ‘try to phone’, ‘hope to achieve’ among compound verbal modal predicates?

What feature of grammatical phenomena is disregarded by the classification?

Is the same principle of classification employed in all the cases?

What criterion is used most often?

Is it possible to make the classification consistent?

Is what sense are the meaning of the object and means of expressing it incompatible?

Is the notion of a predicative construction recognised in all grammars?

What aspect of the grammatical phenomenon prevails in cases of controversy – semantic or formal?

Г.Г.Почепцов

E.Kruisinga

А.И.Смирницкий

Е.М.Гордон

И.П.Крылова

R.Quirk et al.

G.Curme

R.Close

H.Whitehall

Ch.Kahn

Б.А.Ильиш

Л.С.Бархударов

Д.Э.Штелинг

А.И.Смирницкий

А.И.Смирницкий

Б.А.Ильиш, Е.А.Кобрина и др.

Z.Harris

R. Zandvoort

Ch. Fries


TEXT LINGUISTICS. THE GRAMMAR OF THE TEXT

Key notions (terms)

Main Theoretical Points

Debatable Issues

References

Text (txt)

Complex syntactic unit

Supra-sentential unit/ structure

Dicteme

Cohesion

Theme

I.  1. The necessity of emergence of text linguistics (TL)/ text gr (TG). Text as a ling. unit has its own semantic and structural categories: information (sh carry complete inf-n, express a certain communication), profundity presupposition (contain shared knowledge to be understood),  completeness (complete in meaning, not abrupt)

2. More general factors stimulating the appearance and development of TL and TG.

Text = highest unit of speech. In fact we speak not in Ss, but in texts.

If we consider isolated Ss in a D/in the process of a D, we find that it's very rare that one S expresses the complete idea, which is clear without any context. Usually in order to make ourselves understood we have to produce a whole sequence of Ss which forms what is termed now D - the process of communication.

I'm sorry - may mean very many things, we can't translate it without a context.

It's very difficult to give the definition of the text, there are several problems:

-  the length of the utt (where are the headlines of the text, where are the signals of its beginning and its end).

II. 1. Definition of the txt. Main difficulties in defining the txt:

1) quantitative;

2) qualitative

as compared to the sentence.

2. Principal types of the txt.                                    →

1) narrative (here the main thing which provides for prospection and retrosp-n - forms expressing time and Ws exp. space).   2) Description (temporal and spacious characteristics).  3) Dialogue - for description mostly spacious characteristics (considering space, not time); - for the d-gue - the dynamic means, here we have more interjections and colloquial&vivid Ws, than in other types of Ts.

3. The definition of the txt based on the notion of cohesion.

Rels within a txt and their correspondence to the 3 aspects of lge manifested in the act of comm-n.

The notions of

1) semantic cohesion;

2) structural cohesion;

3) communicative (pragmatic) cohesion.

4. Text Delimitation.

T contains 2+ components – complete utt-s, simple/ composite, a T presupposes the existence of a certain cohesion b\n its components-utt-s. A T has no max. (upper) border line that can be gr-ly defined, it’s given by the extra ling. sit-n which is reflected in the T.

III. Categories of the txt (other than cohesion) and their language representation.

The main categories:

1) integrity (continuum/ discontinuum; retrospection/ prospection);

2) completeness; 3) discreetness; 4) divisibility

IV. Text Connective Means.

V. Text Expressive Means.

1) Is the sentence level enough to understand linguistic facts?

2) Is one sentence enough to express a complete thought?

1) What makes the integration of different branches of linguistics possible when the discussion of the txt is concerned?

2) Is TL different from literary analysis?

Text(t.) is a structural and semantic unit used in language communication.

Is a universal definition possible?

(notice 250 definitions registered             →

e.g. in culturology, in rhetoric, in discursive sciences, in synergetic analysis, in ling-cs .                                                 →

                                                                   →

monologues (written speech; grouped into superphrasal units\paragraphs; full Fs, Ind. /Sub. mood, Imp. rare, finite or non-f. (absolutely/in complexes) verb Fs, non-elliptical utterances, 2\1 member utt-s, close\loose attr-s/adv. modifiers, ind. speech, homogeneous members, complex\ comp. utt-s, syndetic\asynd adjoinment)  

dialogues (oral speech, grouped into ”min. conversations”, contracted Fs, Ind./Imp. mood, Sub. –rare, mainly finite Fs, elliptical\non-ell. utt-s, 2 memb utt-s, close attr./adv. modifiers, hom. members -rare, simple/comp. utt-s, complex –rare, mainly asynd. adj-nt, dir.\ind. speech).

Is the notion of paragraph reliable for text delimitation?

A. Informativeness, cohesion, continuum, autosemantism, retrospection, prospection, modality, integrity, completeness

B. Extendedness, continuity, cohesion, completeness, depth perspective, statics, dynamics

Н.С. Почепцов; K. Boost; Z. Harris

The 70-s of the 20th cent:

M. Halliday; T. van Dijk; V. Dressler; W. Kintsch; Гальперин; Караулов; О.И. Москальская; Т.М.Николаева; Цв. Тодоров; з.Я. Тураева

Ю. Сорокин

И.Р. Гальперин

For discussion of p.

M. Halliday

И.Р. Гальперин (A)

А.И. Новиков (B)

For discussion of pp.IV-V see: Резник, Сорокина, Казарицкая (op. cit.), pp. 200-202, 215-218 (p.IV); pp. 218-220 (p.V)


DISCOURSE: DEFINITIONS, CHARACTERISTICS, PROPERTIES. DISCOURSE INFORMATION DIVISION

Key notions (terms)

Basic Issues

Debatable Points

References

Discourse

Text

utterance

proposition

Text

Microtext

Macrotext

Type of D

D genre

Discursive mode

Discursive forms

Classes of D activities

Narrative D

pragmatics

cohesion

coherence

topics/

participants/

spacial/ temporal/

action/

theme continuity

iconicity principle

mentioning order

theme

rheme

given info-

new info-

ground

fore-/ background

D analysis is to describe  how communicants interprete one another’s speech and actions (from the view of mental process in the minds of communicants + extraling. factors).

1. diff. domains of knowledge are analysed (encyclopedical knowledge, personal experience, др)

2.pragm. prncpls of D creation;

3.partner’s expectations determined by D context;

4. principles of organizing info

I. The notion of discourse (D): historical development (a short survey). D is often discussed in terms of strategies of info organ-n, determined by commun. destination. D is a specific way of representing people’s mentality. Thinking in Ws&images.

1. The 60-90ies of the 20ieth century: discourse as speech in general (possible treatments and related notions in definitions).

2. Discourse and mentality.

1) Logical and philosophic definition of D: D as a possible world/ a set of rules to describe a possible world. Phil.approach: D – result. Cognitive appr: D – a process.

2) Pragmatically oriented definition of D: D as a socially and culturally dependent on-line phenomenon/ operation with knowledge.

II. Discourse and Text: respective positions in linguistic analysis. Texts as forms of D existence.

1. Points of similarity: use in communication, meaning, structuring.

2. Features justifying the grave difference: langue and parole (rules of language and conditions for speech).

3. Text linguistics: formal structuring of sentences and chains of sentences.

4. Discourse analysis: types of discourse activity and their interpretation by communicants.

      D:   literary, philisofical, religious, historical

III. Discourse typology – no single classif-n

1. Connotation typology.

2. Genre typology.

3. Level classification: 1) of cognitive orientation; 2) act vs. result of the utterance.

D level – act of the utt.. Narrat. level – result of the utt..

4. Literary D classification. LD: 1.monologue – a) behavioral D; b) expository D.. 2. dialogue (drama) – a)narrative D; b)procedural D

IV. Discourse Pragmatics. Reference in discourse.

1. Pragmatics as a branch of semiotics. Studies the ways the lge science functions in a S.

2. Modern pragmatics: object, aspects (cognitive, communicative).

V. D organization: surface and inner. Info division in D (basic approaches and terminological oppositions). Man as a source of D structuring.

1. Discourse connectedness:

1) cohesion;     2) coherence.

2. Referential coherence: D as a sphere made of continuities. The theme continuity.

Any D provides the partners with the common referencial spheres. From the view point of lge science, such a referential sphere becomes the common source of mngs of all Ws and gramm. str-res used in D. In modern works on Discourse Grammar a text is treated as a referential sphere or field. In works of Am. linguist Givon he describes a Text in the foll. way: the inner deep structure of a Text comprises several continuities (континуумы):

This referential sphere/field comprises 6 continuities:

1) the theme c. – the most important of them.

2) the temporal c. 3) the special c. 4) the action c.

5) the topic c.         6) the participant’s c.

Unlike the rest of the c-s, the theme c. is very seldom made explicit. It is practically never found on the circus lge level. Instead, all of the other c-s add up to it, and in a larger text all minor topical unities melt and transform under the influence of the global theme.

3. Cognitive principles and restrictions on information presentation in discourse:

1). mentioning order (principle based on the iconicity prnc): If 2 Ss describe 2 events which chronologically follow each oth, order of the Ss must correspond to order of the events in reality

2). division of info into given (shared by communicants) and new (for the listener)

4. Distribution of information:

1) in the Actual division of the sentence theory (theme vs. rheme)

2) in the Communicative Dynamism theory – within/beyond a S, + relevant to larger units

3) with the discursive pragmatic approach (given vs. new info-). The theory was applied to composite Ss, not for large Ts

4) in the Grounding theory (foreground(-ing) vs. background(-ing) to reflect the co-existence of

(a) given (old) vs. new info-

(b) more prominent vs. less prominent info-)

Amer. linguist Frieze described “ground” as the author’s choice of the subj matter. He proved that in Eng there is a strong tendency to set up certain inf-n as ground and to place ground in the initial pos-n. Further inf-n in the text is compared to this ground and on the basis of the comparison we evaluate the inf-n status of Ws and str-res and arrange them properly.

Was the treatment of the notion similar in this country and abroad?

1) Do both schools of D analysis bear on the role of cognitive processes in discourse creation?

2) What is the basic opposition in the approaches?

(Notice the difference: perception vs. generation; static vs. dynamic treatment; result of activity vs. process of activity)

1) Do both terms denote the same phenomenon? Can they be used interchangeably? What is discussed in T linguistics and D analysis?

2) The very term ‘txt’ (noun, uncount), though the oldest, seems the least defined + is often used for convenience. When do we use in gramm. (syntactic) analysis?

Notions of D and T overlap in some points:  

1. a unity of m-ng; 2. both used in comm-n;

3. possess a certain gramm. str-re;

4. organized acc. to certain schemes

Any T is a unit of lge as well as of speech.

Prof. Москальская (1980) introduced 2 terms: microtext (MT), macrotext (mT).

MT = T – a social and speech phenomenon.

mT = T (in a narrow mng of the word) – a syntactical notion determined by lge competence, a structural phenomenon.

Why is it difficult to work out a universal discourse typology?

Genre – a sort of organizing principle reproducing the members of lge communities.

Genres: 1. primary (simple oral) – everyday lge use by every member of lge comm-ty.  

2. secondary (complicated written) – specialized use of lge in complex cult.&commun. cond-ns.

Does pragmatics as an independent science have an individual object?

Originally deals with time&place of the utt-nce and inton-n of speech.

chsn –local connectedness (lex&synt, btw lge units), chrnc –global (btw Ss in the T)

Can the theme continuity be made explicit in discourse?

How can the one-way linear ordering of signs be overcome in written D? (grammatically)

1) How long is D (counting, f.e., in Ss)? How far can info- perspective develop? So, what units are we to analyse as components conveying the same info-?

2) Are 2 terms (2 dimensions) enough to describe discursive info-?

3) If info-develops gradually, does foregrounded info- coincide with the main info-?

4) Is foregrounding an exclusively linguistic (semantic) phenomenon? (compare: narrative analysis and cognitive analysis)

The grounding theory was originally generated within the framework of narrative discourse analysis.

E. Benveniste;

Т.М. Николаева,

Н.Д. Арутюнова,

И.Г.Гак, В.А. Звегинцев

P. Seriot, Ю.С. Степанов,

В.З. Демьянков

Е.С. Кубрякова

О.И. Москальская,

Т.М.Николаева,

В.З. Демьянков

Lge competence – knowledge about gramm str-re, lex. & synt skills.

All members of c-ty share ling., pragm., commun. competence

М.М. Бахтин

V. Mignolo, T. Givon - 3. 1),

 A. Greimas, G. Curte - 3.2),

R. Longacre

late 30-s, Morris

60-s, 70-s – indep. branch, focusing on mng as it refers to speech sit-n. psycho_indep-nce of speaker, his prof. skills, social-cult backGr

T. Givon

И.Р. Гальперин

The Prague Linguistic Society (Danes, Firbas, Sgall)

M. Halliday, Т.М. Николаева

Paul Fries, Labov, Waletsky,

Kintsch, L. Kumpf, T.Givon, W.Chafe,  Tomlin

the most flexible theory as based on idea of gradual nature of info-division

DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO SENTENCE ANALYSIS

Key Notions (Terms)

Main Theoretical Points

Debatable Issues

References

main and secondary parts of S:

subject, predicate, attribute, object, adverbial modifier

Immediate / ultimate constituents,

cutting,

derivational tree,

subordination ranks

kernel Ss,

derivation rules,

transforms,

embedding

I. The S as the basic unit of syntax. Structural, semantic and pragmatic aspects of the S.

II. The S in classical (traditional) grammar.

The S = a minimal text unit, a combination of ws, used to express a complete message.

The S consists of the generally recognised parts.

III. The S in descriptive (structural) linguistics.

      The S = a linear sequence of ws of certain classes in certain forms.

Signals of structural meaning:

  1. w-classes; b) position in a sentence;
  2. w change;  d) intonation.

IV. The theory of Immediate Constituents

      The sentence = an hierarchy of levels

V. Transformational-Generative grammar

S => NP + VP (The SVC pattern (subject verb complement) is kernel)

Kernel sentences => transforms

TGG explains how native speakers form/generate Ss. Idea: the system of any lge contains a rather small number of kernel s-ces (ядерные).

Ss of a more complicated str-re are derived from the k. elements by certain rules.

1) John is eager to please  2) John is easy to please

These 2 Ss will have the same derivational tree, but if we imply the methods of transforms it will differ.

  1. John pleased smb
  2. Smb pleases J=it’s easy for smb to please J

These Ss possess diff. kernel patterns which finds its expression in the mng of derived Ss (patterns)

  1. What is the basis for distinguishing different parts of the S?
  2. Is it always possible to determine the syntactic function of a W unambiguously?
  3. How does traditional grammar treat phrases and their components?

Are syntactic functions of ws determined only by their relative positions to each other, or by their meaning as well?

1) On what basis are the S ICs distinguished?

2) Is there any correspondence between the S ICs and the Sdivision into primary and secondary parts?

  1. Is the knowledge of syntactic transformations the only factor that may determine the organization of the syntactic str-re of the sentence?
  2. Is it possible that k. sentences are ready-made str-res of the human mind or are they formed of some elements?
  3. Is the distinction btw different k. Ss based on purely formal criteria or is semantics involved too?

Jespersen, Sweet,

E.Kruisinga,

H. Poutsma,

Onions, Curme,

А.И.Смирницкий,

Л.С.Бархударов,

Г.Н.Воронцова

L.Bloomfield,

E.Sapir, K. Pike,

Ch.Fries

criticism -

Бархударов

Bloomfield

N.Chomsky

Z.Harris

Every complicated S contains 1/ 2 embedded Ss - the procedure of embedding:

#  The old man saw the black dog there. Kernel Ss: 1). The man saw a dog there 2) The man was old  3) The dog was black


DEEP GRAMMAR AND SEMANTIC SYNTAX

Key Notions (Terms)

Main Theoretical Points

Debatable Issues

References

Surface grammar

Deep grammar

Deep cases:

- agentive

- objective

- dative

- instrumental

- factitive

- locative

Semantic roles:

- agent

- patient

- experiencer

- beneficiary

- instrument

- complement

- location

Verbs:

- actions

- processes

- states

(benefactive,

experiential, locative)

I. The subject and basic notions of semantic syntax.

II. The theory of deep cases.

  1. the array of deep cases

  1. the relation between the deep cases and surface structure. Limits set by the deep cases on the syntactical arrangement of the S. The notion of a case frame.

  1. controversial issues of the theory of deep cases

III. The theory of semantic structures (semantic grammar)

  1. semantic roles representing noun-verb semantic relations. The set of the semantic roles and types of verbs.

  1. the verb as the semantic centre of the sentence.  The propositional structure of the sentence. The influence of the internal semantics of the verb on the sentence surface structure.

What fundamental dichotomy is reflected by the distinction of deep and surface grammar?

1) What is case? How are cases marked in English? Why does not the array of English deep and surface cases coincide?

2) On what basis are the deep cases distinguished? Is this distinction consistent? Why is the array of deep cases debatale?

3) How is the S structural organization connected with the hierarchy of  the deep cases? Can 2 different deep cases be combined in the same syntactic function in 1 S?

4) Determine the deep cases acc. to Fillmore’s theory:

  1. John opened the door with the key.
  2. The key opened the door.
  3. The wind opened the door.

Why is the last one problematic?

1) What criteria are suggested for the distinction of the semantic roles? Is it always possible to determine the semantic role of a noun unambiguously?

2) Can a verb be definitely classified as agentive, experiential, benefactive or locative or is it perceived as such in the combination with a noun?

3) Does the sentence surface structure reflect only its propositional structure?

4) What grammatical meanings, expressed in a sentence can be accounted for by the noun-verb relations? And what can’t?

5) Is the sentence surface structure influenced by factors lying outside the sentence (in the text)?

See the discussion of the case of nouns

Ch. Fillmore

Ch. Fillmore

R.Huddlestone

W. Chafe


ACTUAL SENTENCE DIVISON (FUNCTIONAL SENTENCE PERSPECTIVE)

Key Notions (Terms)

Main Theoretical Points

Debatable Issues

References

Actual sentence division=

Functional sentence perspective=

Topic-comment articulation

(division into topic and comment)

The theme, topic, given

The rheme, comment, new

Rhematisation of the action:

in Russ – by impersonal constructions,

Eng – by formal subjects.

A is used to introduce the rheme. The - theme, the noun with the DA doesn’t become the focus of the comm.-n, or the S.

I. The theory of actual division of the sentence. Basic notions.

1)  sentence communicative structure;

2) the theme and the rheme as the basis for the S info organization

3) commun. dynamism and the notion of transition

Danes – 3 level approach: 1. gramm str-re

2. semantic str-re; 3 organ-n of the utt. (new term!)

Firbas: 3rd level allows to make deeper analysis

II. Peculiarities of the Eng Functional S perspective.

1) The subject as the theme of the S. Special means to change the FSP in Ss with thematic subjects:

  1. passive voice;
  2. semantic roles;
  3. formal subjects.

When subj=theme, it’s inconvenient to turn it into rheme (doer is always shadowed), BUT Eng has PassV: rheme –patient/experiencer. P/E – synt. subj, => the agent becomes the rheme

2) The subject as the rheme of the S

 Means of making the subject rhematic:

1. there-structures;

2. introductory ‘it’

3. S – P inversion; On the bed lay a letter.

4. cleft sentences. What I need is a pen.

3) Other means of changing the FSP:

1. intensifiers and parenthesis; The unions, of course, wanted wages.   Even he could do nothing.

2. ellipsis; Who said that? – John.

3. graphical means

III. The role of articles in expressing the theme-rheme division of the S.

But we must specify circumstances under which we make use of As as the only means –> the sem. rels (sem. character of the predicate).

The novelty (новизна) signaled by the IArt becomes apparent due to the sem. nature of the predicate. If the predicate expresses appearance (verbs: come into view/on the scene, come up, present oneself, take place, arise) it is natural that attention should be concentrated rather on the person/thing that appears on the scene, than on the app. itself (act of appearing).

1) What aspect of the S is revealed by the actual S division? Why is this aspect regarded as an important factor of the S organisation?

2) Is it always possible to distinguish the theme and the rheme in an isolated S?

3) How is information (in terms of the theme and the rheme) distributed in

      a) questions;      b) complex Ss?

4)Is it possible for a W in a S to be neither part of the theme (given) or the rheme (new)?

most imp info – in the end

What  is the consequence of the Eng fixed W-order for the theme-rheme division of the S?

WO – 1 of the main pr-ples of The-Rh div-n.

1.Objective WO, SPO, end-focus: When I go to town, I stay with Jane

2. Subjective WO – stress of the initial element

Brilliant it was!

1) Why are special syntactical  means needed to make the subject of an Eng S rhematic?

2) Are sentences with the rhematic subject neutral or stylistically marked?

Are these means present in other lges but Eng?

1) Is there any regular correlation between the article and the FSP of an Eng S? Can the article be regarded as a means of the theme-rheme organization of the S?

2) In what types of Ss can the change of the article bring about the shift of the focus?

Though Ss with verbs of app. tend to have the rhematic subject, the mere change of the art in them shifts the focus of comm-n depriving the subject of its rhematic qualities.

W.Mathesius

J.Firbas

F.Danes

M.Halliday

Ch.Hockett

subj – theme

pred – transition

obj – rheme

Cf. Russian W-order

textbooks of practical Eng Grammar

Conclusion: Eng has found means to make Eng Ss comply with requirements of the ActDiv of Ss. In the majority of Eng Ss the theme = the subje group, the rheme = the predicate group.


PRAGMATIC SYNTAX

Key Notions (Terms)

Main Theoretical Points

Debatable Issues

References

Pragmatics

Locution

Illocution

Perlocution

Illocutionary force

Comm-ve

intention

Constative

Performative

Directive: Injunctions and

Requests

Questions

Commissives:

Promises and Menaces

The problem of distinguishing btw perf-ve and non-p. verbs. ~John refused to apologize (a perf. verb; not a perf. S)

Speech Act Theory

Ind. speech acts

Implicatures

Transposition

I. The subject of pragmatic syntax. Basic notions.

comm. intention of the sp-r – “sp-r’s mng”

   1) locution and illocution as aspects of mng;

locution – act of saying smth (literal mng of the S)

illoc-n – what one does in saying smth, what he’s trying to convey (He insisted on going there)

perl-n – the desired effect is achieved (He talked me into doing it)

   2) illocutionary force as the property of an utt. vs commun. intention as the property of a speaker;

IF – the direction of an utt at solving a cert comm. task

   3) perlocution as the commun. effect of the utt.

Searle described a specific kind of sp. acts – “indirect”. Direct SpAs can be characterized on the basis of their unique IF.

II. Pragmatic types of Ss.

1) the illocutionary force as the basis for distinction of different types of Ss

2) formal syntactical characteristics of different pragmatic types of Ss

3) difficulties in distinguishing

aconstatives vs performatives

1) Constative Ss (CS) – the comm.. intentional content of Ss of this type is reflected in the statement:

~John is a liar. ~The Earth goes round the Sun.

CSs can never be interrogative or imperative. Can be true/false.

2) Performative Ss (PS) ~ I congratulate you. I apologize. I welcome you.

- report/state nothing (unlike CS). By uttering these Ss (I congr. you.) the speaker actually performs the action of congratulating but doesn’t perform any other action.

  1. questions vs directives

The comm. int. content of DSs is directed at inducing  their addressee to act.

  1. promises vs menaces

The comm.. int. content of the menace is opposite to that of the promise. The addressee isn’t interested in accomplishing the action. The speaker isn’t supposed to guarantee his menace/threat.

III. The role of convention in the successful performance of a speech act

Strawson: conv. SpAs r rather few in number, usually occur as legal procedures or sporting events. He stresses: vast majority of SpAs r governed by a variety of sp-r’s intentions & the list-r’s ability to recognize the intention.

IV. Indirect speech acts. Transposition of the pragm. types of Ss as their syntactical representation.

                              Requests

  1. Constatives

                                   Injunctions

                                   Requests

     2) Questions

                                   Injunctions

Trn of pragm. types depends on a variety of contextual factors: beliefs, assumptions, intentions of the sp-r and the addressee and their relative social statuses which can’t be always expressed with the help of the basic pragmatic type.

1) Why can’t traditional syntax explain the difference between the Ss:

         I’m sorry.         I apologize.?

2) How are locution and illocution combined in an utt.?

3)What are the means of expressing perlocution? Is the perlocutionary effect always present in an utt.?

1) Can any uniform criteria be applied for the distinction of the pragmatic types of Ss?

2) What pragmatic types of Ss reflect the following dichotomies:

  1. true – false;
  2. felicitous – infelicitous;
  3. compulsory – non-compulsory for the addressee
  4. postive – negative attitude of the addressee to the action

Utt = S + comm. intention of the sp-r

Utts belong to the level of speech

The comm. intentional content of PSs is accomplished in the action of performing and in the new rel-n btw the speaker & addressee. The structural forms of PSs aren’t restricted by Ss in the 1st person.

… and of Qs - at removing the difference btw the sp-r and the addressee by getting proper info from the addressee.

to perform a successful SpA:

- propositional content rules (what the Sp ll say)

- preparatory rules (what the Sp-r ll imply)

- sincerity rules (Sp’s psychological state)

- essential rules (what the action consists in essentially)

Is convention opposed to or combined with the communicative intention? Which is more important and under what condition?

1) How can the Ss:

         Will you do it for me?

         There is little chalk left.

be interpreted? What does the interpretation depend on?

2) How can the difference in the degree of IF account for the  use of transponed pragmatic types of Ss?

3) What are the reasons for using ISAs and what consequences can they have?

The transposed use of pragm. types of Ss can be accounted for by the difference in the IF. We can speak about reduced IF.

J. Austin

E. Sаpir, Worf, Morris

Austin, Searle

J. Austin,

Strawson

J. Searle,

P. Grice

To understand S as a complicated unit we study it from diff. angles:    1) the structural aspect   2) the semantic aspect  3) the actual aspect (division of the S into Th & Rh)   4) the pragmatic aspect (S as a unit of comm.-n)

Pragmatic Syntax (PS) deals with Utts, not Ss. S or Utts of the same structure type can be of diff pragmatic type: Come at once! – can be an order, a request, a threat, a warning from a pragmatic point of view. Ss or Utts differ from each other by the comm. intention of the sp-r which is directed at solving a certain task of comm.-n. -> The comm. intentional content of the S is a decisive criterion for referring this or that S to a pragmatic type.


FUNCTIONAL APPROACH TO LGE. PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC EXPLORATION

Key notions

(terms)

Basic Issues

Debatable Points

References

Functional pole

Formalist pole

Descriptivism

Generativism

Ethnolinguistics

Tagmemics

Cognitivism

Semantic approach

Syntactic approach

Teleological approach

Comm. approach

Geneva Sch: Sossure, Helbig

Prague Sch: Danes, Firbas, Mathesisus, Trubetzkoy, Jakobson.

London Sch: Sweet, Halliday

Russ. School: Bondarko, Shendels, Gak, Zolotova.

Locution

Ill-n, Perl-n

Performative Ss

Ind. Speech Act

Other f-ns of lge:

- denotation (rel of a sign to an obj) – gen. semantics

- predication (of a sign to another sign) – syntax

- ideational (experiational)

- interpersonal (social role)

- textual or D f-n

1. Main trends in modern linguistics bearing on Functionalism.

     1. I a growing interest to sem-cs as a reflexion of extra-ling. reality.     2. a study of interrelation of diff. levels of L str-re of sem. variation, of the complex relationship btw lexis and grammar.  3. It's a growing interest to man's speech strategies to functioning of L units in speech and text in various D conditions.

2. Formalist and Functional poles

Formalist Approach: Descriptive Approach

Dealed primarily with the empirical knowledge of L str-re and taxonomic descriptions of it (various classif-ns). The main focus was phonology and morphology.

3. The topical issues of Functionalism:

 - functions of lge:  grammarians single out 2-25 functions of lge. in general - communicative and cognitive

 - functions of elements of lge

They can be treated as:    

1. Mng of lge unit (semantic approach)  2. The role played by this or that unit within a larger unit (syntactic approach)  3. The purpose/aim of the lge unit (teleological approach) 4. The comm. intention of the sp-r (comm. appr)

 - types of functional analysis differ in their attitude to the foll. oppositions:

4.The oppositions bearing on the types of analysis

 - function – meaning:  (non)opposed. semantics of a lge unit

 - semasiological (F=>M) – onomasiological (M =>F).  

 - language – user of lge

social aspects, status, distances, circumstances of comm-n

1. fnal analysis boarders on sociolinguistics

2. Comm. primary fn in a speech act and is referred to as a SPEECH ACT

The gist of this theory:

-in perf. Ss the sp-r performs 2 actions:

1) uttering a S (locution)  2) expressing a comm.. intention of request, advice, promise etc. (ill-n)    +perlocution – возд-е

-the main focus of attention of a speech act theory is “illocutionary fn-s’ and lge means used to express those fn-s

It also deals with the cases when “illocutionary fns’ are expressed not directly (question, explanatory), but indirectly. Fn here is understood as a comm. task of a speaker, but hidden in his indirect verbal behaviour

The notion of Sem f-n (SF) isn’t equal to that of gr mng (GM).

4 cases of their possible relationship:

1. they can partially coincide:

e.g. SF= temporal location of an action in the past. -> This SF is part of the volume of the GM of the Past S. and the Pres. Perf. (they are partially synonyms).

2. they can fully coincide:

a bunch of flowers-> the SF of partitiveness is the only GM of this phrase

3. A SF can coincide with the invariant mng, while there are a number of gramm. units with diff. str.res:

a bottle of vodka/a b. with vodka/a b. containing vodka/a b. that contains vodka →

The invariant m.ng = "content". The SF is also "content".

5.Fundamental principles of Functionalism

(summary)

1) Do you agree that Functionalism as a linguistic approach has developed from Structuralism?

2) Are the 2 poles strictly opposed or interconnected?

3) What is the role & place of Russ Functionalism within the Functional pole?

1) Is Functionalism a uniform method?

2) What lge functions are universally adopted?

3) Do types of functional analysis reflect diff. treatment of functions of elements of lge?

1) What is the possible treatment of the term “functional” with regard to semantics?

2) What is the correlation of “sem. function” and “gramm mng” within the teleological approach?

3) What approaches – “from form to mng” or “from mng to F” – would be most productive for grammatical description (either or both)?

4) Does the Speech Act Theory reflect a comm-ve approach?

1)What function of lge is viewed as basic?

2) Is Lge regarded as a teleologically motivated activity?

3) What is the main object of a functional analysis”?

4) Is “function” explored alone or together with the form?

5) What is the attitude of the Functional approach to extraling. factors (pragmatics)

4. A SF can be a combination of the GM (mng of a gr.l form) and of other lge units associated with it:

I remember the man you spoke about. -> The SF of individualization is expressed by the whole Def.Description, i.e. not only by the GM of "the" but also by an attr-ve clause (lex. means).

materials for Sem9

A FA to L developed with the interest of linguists to the functioning of L in comm-n where the sp-r uses L acc. to his comm. tasks.

Ю.С.Степанов

M.A.K.Halliday

L.Bloomfield

Ch.Bally

A.Martine

The Prague school

Е.И.Шендельс

А.В.Бондарко

J.Austin

J.Searl

А.В.Бондарко

semasiological –

investigation of the usage of various lge units in this particular (gramm.) mng.

onomasiological – proceeds from the Gr Mg revealed apriori and studies all possible means of expressing this Mg

Functional Approach has 2 trends:     1. From form to functions (FORM →FUNCTIONS)        # Past Simple - this form used in speech can acquire different mngs

     2.  From function to form (FUNCTIONS→ FORM)

The result of this description is a lex.-gramm. field which has the centre and periphery. The centre is taken up by the gr. forms for which some function is primary and in the periphery we find forms, for which some functions is secondary.  # The field of modality. The centre = the mood forms of the verb b/c they are to be found in every S. Periphery = modal words and expr-s.


FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR. THE THEORY OF FUNCTIONAL SEMANTIC FIELDS

Key notions

(terms)

Basic Issues

Debatable Points

References

Notional categories

Functional Semantic Categories (FSC)

Semantic function

Plane of content

Plane of expression

Centre

Periphery

1. Functional Grammar: the main object of analysis

2. Functional Semantic Fields:

 - semantic basis

 - core

 - structure

FSF is the core of FuncGr (FGr is focused on the study of sem. f-ns viewed teleologically & functioning of gr. units, which together with other L units participate in rendering the mng of a utt).

FSF is based on the similarity of f-ns of its elements. The sem. system of the lge can be str-rally organized as a field.

Any FSF is based on variant-invariant relationship.

The sem. basis of a FSF is a functional semantic category (an invariant realized in its variants = > various sem.functions).

3. The FSF of Definiteness/Indef-s in Eng:

 - the plane of content (formed by the functional sem. category + sem. functions as variants)                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        

 - the plane of expression (formed by various L means that serve to render those sem. functions; has the centre + periphery)

Since the plane of expression of any FSF is composed of various lge means (gr & non-gr) which are used to render the same sem. content, all FSFs presuppose the rels of synonymy btw and among their elements.

1) How is a SF viewed by Functional Grammar?

2) Is Functional Grammar focused on the study of only grammatical units or other language units as well (not necessarily grammatical)?

1) How is the semantic system of Language structured within a field approach?

2) How are mental concepts (notional categories) represented in the semantic system of Language?

3) What is the correlation of FSCs and SFs?

4) What can form the core of a FSF:

 - a morphological gramm. category

 - a gramm. form

 - a gramm. class of words

 - a lexico-grammatical class of words

 - a syntactic structure?

5) Are FSFs structurally homogeneous or heterogeneous?

6) What is implied in the definition of a FSF as a “bilateral unity”?

7) How is “invariant-variant” relationship reflected in the plane of content?

8) What is the structure of the plane of expression?

1) What FSFs and SFs form the plane of content of the segment of Definiteness?

2) What is the centre and the periphery of the plane of expression?

3) Are there any plausible semantic links (points of contiguity) between a Referential approach and a Functional approach to ling. exploration?

А.В.Бондарко

Т.С.Сорокина

See Lecture and materials for Seminar 9

Semantic function = a category of mng which is implied in the actual mngs of qr. forms, function Ws, syntactic structures, in the mngs of lexico-qramm classes of Ws


FUNCTIONAL GRAMMATICAL SYNONYMY: CRITERIA, TYPES OF SYNONYMS, CHOICE OF SYNONYMS

Key notions

(terms)

Basic Issues

Debatable Points

References

speech strategies

Functional synonymy

Semantic function (SF)

Denotative synonyms

Referential synonyms

Synonymic row (paradigm)

Functional Semantic Correspondences (FSCs)

Kernel member of the paradigm

Noun phrase (NP)

Means of Denotation;

“Тopicality”;

Characterization;

Assimilation;

Pre- and postposition of an attribute;

Integral or extended formation of NPs;

Expressed or implied predication

Apart from their referential mng demonstrative pronouns have their own lexico-gr. mng. The articles have only gr. mng.

1. Grammatical Synonymy as a manifestation of Language variation: various approaches

 - notional (deep structure) similarity

 - situational similarity

 - positional similarity

 - similarity of grammatical meaning

2. Levels of Synonymy:

 - morphological

 - syntactic

inter-level synonymy

3. Functional Grammatical Synonyms:

 - criteria for synonymy

( similarity of SF;

similar / different syntactic structure;

optional lexical identity;

mutual substitution of synonyms as a consequence of synonymy (the highest level of semantic equivalence)

 - types of functional synonyms

1) referential - perform the same referential semantic function

2) denotative - structural and sem. compatability of components.

The kernel element: preposition phrase, article (a). Can explain the same semantic function by min. semantic means. Ready to substitute any other member with min. lge means.

4. “Loose” and “Strict” synonymy:

 - basic criterion for Strict s-my (FSCs)

 - Strict referential synonymic paradigm; kernel members

 - Strict denotative synonymic paradigms; kernel members

The necessary cond-n for strict s-my is the ability of synonyms of mutual substitution – a one-way process: only the kernel member of a synonymic paradigm can substitute for other members.

Loose s-ms – for which mutual subst-n is not necessary.

The only criterion for denot. s-ms is Structural and Semantic Compatibility of the components = the ability to transformation.

5. The Choice of Synonyms within a Strict synonymic paradigm:

 - extralinguistic factors (stylistic, socioling.)

 - comm.. intention of the sp-r (through realization of his lge competence)

Mechanism: If the speaker wants to perform the def/indef reference he chooses an A. If more specifically – Pro-N, not A. Both means of expressing def/indef reference the A/Pro-N belong to the speaker’s lge competence, which he uses each time he wants to realize his communicative intention in speech.

Diff comm.. intentions presuppose diff ways by which the speaker can express the same idea.

1) Does the treatment of Grammatical Synonymy necessarily presuppose similarity of grammatical meaning? Why is it important as a criterion of Grammatical Synonymy?

1) Do morphological synonyms require similarity of their denotative meaning?

2) Are syntactic synonyms similar in their syntactic function?

3) Are there any plausible criteria for inter-level synonyms? Is a different approach to Grammatical Synonymy needed to treat inter-level synonyms?

1) What is the basic criterion for Functional Synonymy?

2) Does the definition of a semantic function (SF) presuppose the possibility of inter-level approach?

3) Is synonymy implied in the semantic structure of a FSF (relations between the centre and the periphery)?

4) What is the difference between denotative and referential SFs?

1) Is mutual substitution of synonyms within a paradigm of FSCs a “one-way” process?

2) Does Strict referential synonymy imply the similarity of

 - PCs

 - CSs (with their internal semantics)

 - syntactic patterns of def. descriptions

 - syntactic functions of indef. descriptors

 - morph. form of a noun (name)?

3) Does Strict denotative synonymy imply the structural and semantic compatibility of components of NPs?

The conditions for strict synonymy for def. referential synonyms:

1) Similar PC     2) Similar patterns of expl./impl. means of reference

3) Similar morph. form of a noun (sing./plural)

The conditions for strict synonymy within the indef. referential paradigm

1) similar contextual set (контекстуально-гр. набор) with similar internal semantics

2) similar morph. form of a noun

1) What lge competence of the speaker governs the choice of synonyms (articles, pronouns) within a Strict referential paradigm?

2) Do both the articlesNO and the pronounsYES have a denotative component (apart from their ability to perform reference)?

3) What lge competence of the speaker governs the choice of synonyms (various NPs) within a Strict denotative paradigm?

4) Do NPs have similar or different

 - means of denotation

 - “topicality”?

А.М.Пешковский

Г.И.Рихтер

А.Н.Гвоздев

Ю.С.Степанов

Н.Д.Арутюнова

В.Г.Гак

В.Г.Адмони

Е.И.Шендельс

И.П.Иванова

Л.С.Бархударов

Е.В.Гулыга

Т.С.Сорокина

See Lecture and materials for Seminar 9

Т.С.Сорокина

Г.А.Золотова

Н.Г.Кирвалидзе

Т.П.Архипович

!!! The kernel element – ARTICLE

Е.С.Кубрякова

Т.С.Сорокина


THEORY OF REFERENCE: TOPICAL ISSUES AND PRACTICAL APPLICATION. DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE REFERENCE

Key notions

(terms)

Basic Issues

Debatable Points

References

Denotation

Name

Object

Referent

actualizing

articles

pronouns

Tense

Aspect

Mood

I. 1.Theory of Reference  vs Theory of Denotation (the twofold character of the noun)

Name = any notional W or W-group which can denote an object of reality.

 Referent = an object of reality which is represented by a name in an utterance.

Ns can denote an object and are able to refer to objects of reality, and these 2 things do not necessarily coincide. The TofR started with observation of common nouns ->notional Ws ->groups ->Ss ->Ts. (parrot)

2. The phenomenon of reference as the subject matter of the Theory of Reference

The TofM shows what is denoted by a W.

The TofR shows in what way the given name denotes the given object.

Sentence is a language unit => TofM.

Utterance is a speech unit, it is an actualized S =>TofR. Since Ref is performed by the speaker in a speech act, the topical issues of the TofR are means end ways of actualizing a S, which in a speech act becomes an utt..

Dif-ce in the attitude to pragmatics

The TH of D disregards all the types of pragmatics (the speaker)

The Th of R takes into account all the pragmatic factors that accompany the speech acts (the rels btw the utt & S, all the extraling. factors…).

3.Means of reference in nominal and predicate groups

Actualizing (= referring a name to an object) is performed:

•   within PREDICATE groups by:

1. a gramm. form of a verb   2. lexical indications (of time)     3.  lex.-gramm. mng of a verb

e.g. At 10 p.m. father drove home along a lonely country... and went to bed =>

DROVE: 1. the gramm. form = the Past Simple.  2. time indication = at10p.m.

3. lex.-gr. mng = quantified process (has beginning and end)

•  within NOMINAL groups by arts and prons, which:      - mark the existence of a W; - register the idea of oneness; - register the idea of uniqueness under the circumstances (имение ввиду), etc.

4. The status and the theories of the Article.

1) Do the basic notions of the two theories reflect Language/Speech opposition, “what”/”how” opposition?

2) Are the two theories opposed in their attitude to pragmatics?

This dualism of common nouns led to disintegration of semasiology: 1) the TofDen (language as a system) 2) the TofR (actual use of lge in communication).

1) Do means of reference belong to Language or Speech?

2) What is Language/Speech opposition with regard to sentences and the Text?

Can reference be performed only to an object or to a whole situation?

Actualizing (referring a name to an obj) is performed by pronouns and arts within a nominal group (a noun + a W modifiers); it is performed by means of the gramm. categories of tense, aspect and mood within a predicate group. Though Ref is performed in the process of comm.-n (in speech), all the means of Ref belong to lge.

1) Is the Article a morpheme or a separate part of speech?

2) Was the flaw of the existing approaches to the Art a) in their emphasis on Definiteness rather than Indefiniteness, b) in their inability to incorporate situational PC?

For discussion of Reference see Lecture and materials for Seminar 8

В.Г.Гак

Н.Д.Арутюнова

Е.В.Падучева

П.Ф.Строссон

Дж.Р.Серл

Е.В.Падучева

А.И.Смирницкий

О.Есперсен

Дж.Несфилд

M.Bloh

Е.А.Рейман

Philosophical approach

Theory of Familiarity

(P.Christophersen)

Transformational

approach

1. Ref is an aspect of semantics which gives an insight into ling. mechanisms of speech and man’s speech strategies.

2. Ref is a method of ling. investigation which allows to reveal those mechanisms of man’s speech strategies which are often hidden behind his verbal behaviour

Definite descriptor

Definite description

Pragmatic conditions (PC)

Nominal phrase (NP)

Anaphoric use

Shared general knowledge

Immediate situation use

Cataphoric use

Class generalization

Total generalization

Indefinite descriptor

Classification

Concrete nomination

Inconcrete nomination

Universal generalization

Quazi-total generalization

Contextual set (CS)

Internal semantcs

Micro-and Macroexplicit language means

II. Practical application of the TofR: the category of Definiteness/Indefiniteness

1. The Def. reference: necessary conditions

a) expressed or implied PC (realization of SF “individualization of the referent”)

b) factors of “existence”, “oneness” and “referent as a particular object meant by the speaker” (communicative intention).

The def Ref of a name to an object is performed within  a nominal group  characterized by certain type of relationship (PC) reducing the sphere of Ref. Primary SF of the – individualization of the referent (actual mng of this function: the object denoted by descriptor is related to other objects of reality > there exists at least one object that the speaker refers to as unique under the circumstances).    • generic function of the:

۷Class generalization (nouns in Sg)

٧Total gen-n (nouns in Pl)

۷Specifying  ٧Generic  ۷Restricting   ٧Individ.

The rels btw the objects = pragm conds (PC) → semantically similar to the types of rels btw the components of a nom. phrase. types of rels:

1. subj-obj (the driver of the car)   2. partitiveness (the branches of the tree)    3. equivalence (the city of London)  4. Quality (the harshness of the episode)    5. location (the fields below)   6. subj-pred (the car that has started)  7. content (Descriptor +Ving) the reputation of being a beauty    (D-r +clause) the changes that have begun)   9. time (Numeral +descriptor the second day)

10. cause in effect (the reasons for his decisions)

11. possessiveness (the face of the youth)

12. destination (для чего-то)

2. The Definite ref as viewed by the hearer (reader) and the speaker

A def d-r – a nominal phrase which contains the def descriptor.

From the p. of view of a hearer/reader they are contextual means: it is the context you decode, you understand what type of relationship is meant. You are given an instruction how the def. ref. is performed.    

From the p. of view of sp-r, they are PCs: when you generate an utt, you know for sure what PC you imply, what type of relationship you are going to express, how you are going to reduce the sphere of ref-ce.

3. Other SFs of the Definite article

4.The Indefinite reference: SFs of the Indefinite and Zero articles

The indef. ref is performed by the I-Art with count. nouns in the sing. or Z-Art with nouns in the plural.

SFs: 1. Class-n (opposition). 2. concrete nomination

   3. inconcrete nom-n    4. Universal generalization (a standard, typical member, any/every)

   5. Quasi-total gen-n (totality is open, almost all)

5. The Indef. ref.: necessary conditions

a) a grammatical contextual set (CS);

b) the comm.. intention of the speaker (not to reduce the sphere of ref. to the degree of individualizing)

Internal semantics:   - у classification - referring to a class, opposition;  - concrete nom-n: time or space location;  - inconcrete nom-n: unreality expressed by various CSs;

- universal & quasi gen-n: gen-n and comparison

6. The Definite and the Indefinite reference (compared)

1) Does the DArt perform the DefRef by itself or as part of a def. description?

2) Is there any similarity between PC and the semantic relationship of the components of a NP?

3) Is SF “individualization of the referent” realized through diff. PC reducing the sphere of reference of a name to an object?

4) Is the context of a definite description a necessary and enough condition for the Def. article to be used?

5) Is the communicative intention of the speaker as important as PC?

Implied DC:

1) associative anaphoric use (anaphora precedes, cataphora follows)

~The owl hooted, and the sound (the definite descriptor) seemed to fill the whole night. (PC - equivalence: the owl produced the sound; the sound is anaphora; presupposition – предшествующий контекст)

~She was a stout woman with a red face. The eyes (the def d-r) seemed to confess…(PC – inalienable possession)

2) shared general knowledge (is shared by the sp-r and the hearer as members of society)

~At that time, it was just after the war (the def. dr), I happened to know several people in the Foreign Office.- (PC – equivalence)

WW1, “war” is explicit, the WW1 – implicit

3) Immediate (visible) sitn

The referent is located within the given sitn.

~Here is the gate. Now you’ll see it. (it’s located within a certain sit-n. rels btw what we say and see – location. PC – loc-n)

4) Cataphoric use (the posterior ling. context)

~Then came the catastrophe: (the description of it)  (the catastrophe consists in…) (PC– content)

1) Does the hearer (reader) decode the instruction of how the Def reference is performed through PC?

2) Does the Speaker perform the Definite reference through PC showing how the sphere of reference is reduced?

Is the PC “equivalence” expressed or implied in other uses of the Def.article?

1) Do the Indef. and Zero articles perform the Indef. reference by themselves or as part of a whole grammatical context of the use of the Indef. descriptor?

2) Is a partic, type of Ind. reference (or SF) specified through its internal semantics?

In case of ind ref the indef/zero art only signal that the reference is indef without specifying its type. The actual type of semantic is determined by the whole context of the use of the indef. descriptive.

Each type of the ind ref is characterized by a number of typical contextual sets.

Each CS is determined by:

-  its internal semantics

-  the syntactic function of the descriptive in the utt

-  micro- (within the S) and macro (outside) explicit lge means of expressing this or that SF.

1) Is a CS characterized only by the internal semantics of a SF or also by the syntactic function of the descriptor and the micro- and macroexplicit lge means?

2) Is an Indefinite SF expressed by one  or more than one CS?

3) Is the communicative intention of the speaker as important as a CS?

1)Are the Def and the Ind ref performed through similar or diff. SF of the arts?

2) Is a similar size of context needed to perform both types of reference?

3) Is the comm.. intention of the speaker the same or different?

Н.Д.Арутюнова

Е.В. Падучева

A. Chesterman

Т.С.Сорокина

Б.Рассел

О.И.Москальская

Г.В.Колшанский

Н.А.Слюсарева

Y.A.Hawkins

See Lecture

The D-Art is used when a referent is individualized in at least one of those PC. =If at least 1 type of the above mentioned rels is held btw the given referent and another r=nt, the D-Art can be used with the actualized noun. The presence of this rel-n is necessary but not enough for the D-Art to be used.

A.Chesterman

Т.С.Сорокина

See materials for Seminar8

Е.В.Падучева

Т.М.Николаева

П.Ф.Строссон

Дж.Серл

С.Кuno

A.Chesterman

Т.С.Сорокина

See materials for Seminar 8


TABLE OF CONTENTS

The subject of theoretical grammar. Types of grammatical description.

Historical trends in grammar. Parts of Gr. Basic notions of  theor. Gr                        7

Items of controversy in the part of speech classification                                           10

The pronoun. The categories of case and number. Historical survey                           12

The adjective. The degrees of comparison. Historical survey                                  13

The noun. The categories of number, case, gender                                                  14

The noun. The categories of gender, number, case. Historical survey                           17

The article                                                                                                  19

The article. Historical survey                                                                           21

The verb: the category of tense                                                                          22

The verb. The category of tense. Historical survey                                                  23

The verb: the category of aspect                                                                                25

The verb. The category of aspect. Historical survey                                                         26

The verb: the category of phase                                                                                 28

The verb. The category of phase (order, time-correlation). Historical survey              30

The verb: the category of voice                                                                                 31

The verb. The category of voice. Historical survey                                                       33

The verb. Modality and mood                                                                            34

The verb. The category of mood. Historical survey                                                       36

Syntax as part of grammar. The main units of syntax                                            37

Syntax. Historical survey                                                                                      38

Syntactic relations between words                                                                    40

Structural classification of the sentence. The simple sentence.

Elliptical sentences                                                                                    42

The principal parts of the sentence. The secondary members of the sentence               44

Text linguistics. The grammar of the text 46

Discourse: definitions, characteristics, properties.

Discourse information division                                                                                 49

Different approaches to sentence analysis                                                                  52

Deep grammar and semantic syntax                                                                            54

Actual sentence divison (functional sentence perspective)                                                 56

Pragmatic syntax                                                                                             58

Functional approach to language. Priciples of linguistic exploration                            60

Functional grammar. The theory of functional semantic fields                                     62

Functional gr-l synonymy: criteria, types of synonyms, choice of synonyms                64

Theory of reference: topical issues and practical application.

Definite and indefinite reference                                                                     60


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THE ARTICLE and other determiners 1.The status of the article ( word or morpheme?) 2. The number of articles (two or three?) 3.The meanings and functions of the article: Can articles have meanings? Do articles serve formal or content purposes?

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How many articles are there in English? The article is a MORPHEME: 3 articles A, THE, Zero The article is a WORD, and a word can’t be a zero: 2 articles A THE + significant absence as absence of a word can render meaning

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FUNCTIONS OF THE ARTICLE


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ASPECT (semantically) shows the development of an action in time: aspect ≠ tense ( how ≠ when)

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MORPHOLOGICAL CATEGORY OF ASPECT ( forms used to be treated among tenses) plane of content Common aspect Continuous aspect complete/ incomplete , incomplete , single / repeated, concrete / single, concrete , indefinite, point/ continuing , continuing, temporary, permanent/ temporary planned future, emotional to be + - ing plane of expression Forms are opposed, meanings overlap Pure stem

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How different language means interact to express the aspectual character of an event


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Practical English Grammar aims at a descriptive enumeration of grammatical facts and offers prescriptions to their ‘correct’ employment. RESULT for learners of English: coherent and intelligible speech acceptable at a certain historical period (of sensible duration) .

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Theoretical Grammar of the English Language interprets grammatical (language) facts, which presupposes: description of the grammatical system as a complicated unity , with special focus on the interconnections and interdependences between the elements of the unity ; identification of grammatical phenomena and their hierarchy , analysis of their inter-system status and relevance; research of the language grammatical structure , or inter-language organization, responsible for the functioning of the system; (in academia) analysis of major scientific viewpoints , with special reference to their explanatory force, contradictions, and reasons for relative inconsistency. NB! Interpretation often involves diachronic references and comparison with other languages . NB! Interpretation involves identification of the approach employed for analysis: structural (formal), meaningful (semantic), structural-and-semantic, functional, or cognitive.

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GRAMMATICAL MEANING: Is divorced from the lexical meaning of a word; Is abstract (generalized ); Is discovered in comparison with other forms of the same word , thus possessing a relative nature

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GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY – A UNITY OF GRAMMATICAL MEANING AND GRAMMATICAL FORM IMPORTANT: grammatical meanings are realized in whole classes of words (e.g. substantivity in the NOUN) and sentences (e.g. active – passive sentences, based on lexico -grammatical transitivity in the VERB); GCs always find morphological or syntactic expression (in various MARKERS). Morphological GCs are expressed within a word: have NO nominating function, but reflect relations between members of a paradigm are studied in terms of oppositions (binary or multi-element) correlate with notional categories (i.e. categories of human thinking), falling into objective GCs (e.g . number of nouns) and subjective-objective GCs (tense , voice, mood)

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Morphology and Syntax: main units and connections

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MORPHOLOGY: Word SYNTAX: Morpheme Word-form Part of speech Representing a part of speech: carries a generalized abstract lexico -grammatical meaning Word-group Sentence Text Used as a member of the sentence: positional and functional features in relation to other, mostly dissimilar words

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MORPHOLOGICAL UNITS: the morpheme CLEAR CLEAR CLEARED CLEARLY DEFINITION: A minimal meaningful unit PROCEDURE OF ANALYSIS: Cutting into constituents L. Bloomfield, ‘LANGUAGE’ CL + EAR… ( phonemes, have form, but NO meaning) CLEAR + 0 CLEAR + S CLEAR + ED CLEAR + LY ( morphemes; have form AND meaning: 1) lexical meaning; 2) some other meaning placing the words as different parts of speech and different sentence members)

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TYPES OF MORPHEMES in grammar MORPHEMES: ROOTS VS AFFIXES Derivational Vs Inflectional ( function ) Prefixes Vs Suffixes ( position with regard to the root ) Morphemes and allomorphs as speech variants of morphemes or systematic morphological possibilities (historically grounded) Cf.: CATS /-s/ DOGS /-z/ HOUSES /- iz / vs CHILD REN , OX EN , SHEEP Ø

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MEANS OF SYNTHETIC FORM-BUILDING: suffixation, morpho -phonemic alteration, suppletion SUFFIXATION 1. –s / s,z,iz /: cats, dogs, houses; boy’s; ours; (he) takes 2. – ed / d,t,id /: (to play) – played- played, (to look) – looked - looked, (to unite) – united-united 3. – ing : dancing (hall); dancing (is fun) 4.-er: funnier 5.-est: funniest 6. –en: spoken, oxen 7. – ren : children 8. –ne: mine 9. –m: him, them MORPO-PHONEMIC ALTERATION (SOUND INTERCHANGE) Foot-feet, take – took SUPPLETION To be – am, is, are – was, were – been - being 2. To go – went – gone 3. Good – better - the best; bad – worse – the worst 4. I – me; we – us ; she - her

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Morphological word-forms : 1) bound (dependent) grammatical units; 2) become active in the flow of thought/speech when a sentence is generated Synthetic Analytical: Be play + ing Be studi + ed / bought Have work + ed / begun (Л.С. Бархударов : discontinuous morpheme )

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PARTS OF SPEECH NOTIONAL: The Noun The Verb The Adjective The Adverb The Pronoun The Numeral Common Features: 1) a distinct lexical meaning; 2) syntactic functions in sentences 3) open numbers FUNCTIONAL: The Preposition The The Conjunction Inter- The Article jection ?! Common Features: 1) no distinct lexical meaning; 2) no syntactic functions, but a connecting role; 3) obligatory use; 4) dependent use (with notional words); 5) limited number


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THE CATEGORY OF MOOD Mood and Modality

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reasons for difficulties and controversy in discussing mood as a grammatical notion - Different number of moods (2-16) - Different number and status of verbal mood forms homonymy or polysemy ? Slide 5

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Mood as a grammatical category : opposed meanings are represented by opposed forms I take a book – Take a book! *** I take a book – If I took a book/ If I had taken a book/ Should I take a book

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THE IMPERATIVE MOOD

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SHOULD / WOULD + INFINITIVE : analytical form or free word combination with modals? Homonyms or synonyms? Origin : draw from modals shall -> should will -> would BUT 1. Show difference in their lexical meanings + person distinction as aux./ no person distinction as modals, e.g.: I should be grateful if you would come. VS You should come. / He would not listen. 2. Show difference in bound/ free use in sentences: FEU are to be found in clauses of unreal condition. 3. FEU tend to be reduced in speech, which is a sign of function word: I’d, you’d etc. 4. FEU tend to become person indifferent : I’d = I should or I would 5. Real/ unreal future , e.g.: He said he would go VS. If… I should go/ have gone. Grammatical homonyms!


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Characteristics of the system : 1) interdependence between different parts of speech (part-of-speech meanings + combinability in sentences) ; 2) quantitative differences (larger and smaller classes of words) ; 3) qualitative differences (see ‘classification’ below) . Parts of speech are extensive lexico - grammatical classes of words where individual entities display the generalized abstract grammatical meaning typical of the whole class ; these grammatical meanings bring to life sets of characteristic grammatical categories that materialize as grammatical forms and grammatical markers (morphemes): Noun= substantivity -> case+number , gender distinctions

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PARTS OF SPEECH NOTIONAL: The Noun The Verb The Adjective The Adverb The Pronoun The Numeral Common Features: 1) a distinct lexical meaning; 2) independent syntactic functions I in sentences 3) large in number FUNCTIONAL: The Preposition The The Conjunction Inter- The Article jection ?! Common Features: 1) no distinct lexical meaning; 2) no syntactic functions, but a connecting role; 3) obligatory use; 4) dependent use (with notional words); 5) limited number

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PARTS OF SPEECH: PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION Semantic (ancient and early traditional grammars), Morphological (formal) (historically oriented and early descriptive grammars) Syntactic (modified descriptive grammars) Combination (semantics, morphology and syntax) (practical manuals) Functional (field theories, modern functional-and- descriptive grammars) Cognitive (in progress)

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Combination approach: Semantic principle Morphological principle morphological categories derivational affixes Syntactic principle syntactical function in the sentence syntactic distribution (V.V. Vinogradov)

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Functional approach (functional-semantic fields): Lexical and semantic field of the NOUN Е.И. Шендельс , Н.И. Гулыга , А.В. Бондарко

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Cognitive approach: Ontological category – plane of expression prototypes periphery Е. С. Кубрякова

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Controversial Issues in Parts-of-Speech Classification: 1) Is it a part of speech? 2) Is it a notional or a structural PS? Basic Issues to consider: Meaning, Form, Function

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make up a separate part of speech: Semantically denote state Morphologically possess a distinct structure: a-live, a-blaze, a-sleep, a-wake, etc. Syntactically perform independent functions: She was asleep on the sofa. I saw her asleep on the sofa. The boy asleep on the sofa was breathing quietly. do not make up a separate part of speech, are a subgroup of the adjective State is a variety of the meaning of property The suffix a- is a derivational element. Combinability of adjectives: e.g. more afraid; painfully aware 2. Typical restrictions in functions STATIVES, or WORDS OF THE CATEGORY OF STATE


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THE VERB: DEFINITION

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THE CATEGORY OF TENSE Notice: TIME ≠ TENSE Different types of present time actions (+ past time actions + future actions) Past actions proper Hypothetical, problematic, unreal actions ( it is not about tense ! )

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The number of tenses in English 3 tenses : Present Past Future , where shall/will + infinitive = analytical form 2 tenses : Present, past + a set of means to express future actions, where shall/will + infinitive = free combination with a modal verb


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The status of perfect forms in English Grammar

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SEMANTIC APPROACH: a unique, particular meaning is to be ascribed to a grammatical form (А.И. Смирницкий )


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THE CATEGORY OF VOICE - shows the relation between the action and its participants that are syntactically represented as the subject and the object of the construction. ACTIVE PASSIVE PLANE OF CONTENT performs receives the Subject S causes action receives / is affected by contains the action pure stem to be + - ed PLANE OF EXPRESSION

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SEMANTICS OF THE PASSIVE VOICE when is the ACTIVE ↔ PASSIVE transformation possible? (the meaning of transitivity inherent to the verb governs the possibility) The problem of the NUMBER of voices (Active, passive, middle, reciprocal, reflexive: meanings of the voice forms or separate voices)

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THE CHOICE OF THE ACTIVE OR PASSIVE CONCTRUCTION is related to: The sentence information focus Existence and/or importance of the doer of the action Syntactic complexity of the sentence Stylistic demands Extension of transitivity in modern English (cf. the number of passive constructions in English and Russian; directions of syntactic transformation and restrictions)